Orange (colour)

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This article is about the color. For the fruit, see Orange (fruit). For the word, see Orange (word).
Orange
 
Color icon orange v2.svg
Spectral coordinates
Wavelength 590–620 nm
Frequency 505–480 THz
About these coordinates     Colour coordinates
Hex triplet #FF7F00
sRGBB  (r, g, b) (255, 127, 0)
CMYKH   (c, m, y, k) (0, 50, 100, 0)
HSV       (h, s, v) (30°, 100%, 100%)
Source HTML Colour Chart @30
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)

Orange is the colour between red and yellow on the spectrum of light, and in the traditional colour wheel used by painters. Its name is derived from the fruit orange.

In Europe and America orange is commonly associated with amusement, the unconventional, extroverts, warmth, fire, energy, activity, danger, taste and aroma, the autumn season, and Protestantism. In Asia it is an important symbolic colour of Buddhism and Hinduism.[1]

In nature and culture

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Main article: Shades of orange

  • The colour orange derives its name from the orange fruit.

  • Delicate Arch in Arches National Park, Utah

  • Lifeboats in Arklow Harbour, Ireland. Orange is chosen for lifeboats and lifesaving jackets because of its high visibility.

  • A young Buddhist monk in Laos

  • Hindu Sadhus, or holy men, in Rajasthan, wear orange as a sacred colour.

  • Saffron is both a spice and a widely used dye in Asia.

Etymology

The colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit.[2] The word comes from the Old French orenge, from the old term for the fruit, pomme d'orenge. That name comes from the Arabic naranj, through the Persian naranj, derived from the Sanskrit naranga.[3] The first recorded use of orange as a colour name in English was in 1512,[4][5] in a will now filed with the Public Record Office.

Before this word was introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language.[6] Crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad (yellow-red) for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog (yellow-saffron) for yellowish orange.[7][8][9] Alternatively orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, the Red Planet and robin redbreast.


History and art

In ancient Egypt artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was also used later by Medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts. Pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known as orpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China although it contains arsenic and is highly toxic. It was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its yellow-orange colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists searching for a way to make gold, both in China and the West.

Before the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, but without the name; it was simply called yellow-red. Portuguese merchants brought the first orange trees to Europe from Asia in the late 15th and early 16th century, along with the Sanskrit naranga, which gradually became "orange" in English. In parts of Germany, the Netherlands, and Russia, the orange fruit was and is still called the Chinese apple.

  • People in ancient Egyptian wall paintings often were shown with orange or yellow-orange skin, painted with a pigment called realgar.

  • The mineral orpiment was a source of yellow and orange pigments in ancient Rome, though it contained arsenic and was highly toxic.

  • Icon, 12th century

The House of Orange

The House of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential royal houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 the tiny Principality of Orange, a feudal state of 108 square miles north of Avignon in southern France. The Principality of Orange took its name not from the fruit, but from a Roman-Celtic settlement on the site which was founded in 36 or 35 BC and was named Arausio, after a Celtic water god;[10] however, the name may have been slightly altered, and the town associated with the colour, because it was on the route by which quantities of oranges were brought from southern ports such as Marseilles to northern France.

The family of the Prince of Orange eventually adopted the name and the colour orange. The colour came to be associated with Protestantism, due to participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion. One member of the house, William I of Orange, organized the Dutch resistance against Spain, a war that lasted for eighty years, until the Netherlands won its independence. Another member, William III of Orange, became King of England in 1689, after the downfall of the Catholic James II.

Due to William III, orange became an important political colour in Britain and Europe. William was a Protestant, and as such he defended the Protestant minority of Ireland against the majority Roman Catholic population. As a result, the Protestants of Ireland were known as Orangemen. Orange eventually became one of the colours of the Irish flag, symbolizing the Protestant heritage.

When the Dutch settlers of South Africa rebelled against the British in the late 19th century, they organized what they called the Orange Free State. In the United States, the flag of the City of New York has an orange stripe, to remember the Dutch colonists who founded the city. William of Orange is also remembered as the founder of the College William & Mary, and Nassau County in New York is named after the House of Orange-Nassau.

18th and 19th century

In the 18th century orange was sometimes used to depict the robes of Pomona, the goddess of fruitful abundance; her name came from the pomon, the Latin word for fruit. Oranges themselves became more common in northern Europe, thanks to the 17th century invention of the heated greenhouse, a building type which became known as an orangerie. The French artist Jean-Honoré Fragonard depicted an allegorical figure of "inspiration" dressed in orange.

In 1797 a French scientist Louis Vauquelin discovered the mineral crocoite, or lead chromate, which led in 1809 to the invention of the synthetic pigment chrome orange. Other synthetic pigments, cobalt red, cobalt yellow, and cobalt orange, the last made from cadmium sulfide plus cadmium selenide, soon followed. These new pigments, plus the invention of the metal paint tube in 1841, made it possible for artists to paint outdoors and to capture the colours of natural light.

In Britain orange became highly popular with the Pre-Raphaelites and with history painters. The flowing red-orange hair of Elizabeth Siddal, the wife of painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, became a symbol of the Pre-Raphaelite movement, Lord Leighton, the president of the Royal Academy, produced Flaming June, a painting of a sleeping young woman in a bright orange dress, which won wide acclaim. Albert Joseph Moore painted festive scenes of Romans wearing orange cloaks brighter than any the Romans ever likely wore. In the United States, Winslow Homer brightened his palette with vivid oranges.

In France painters took orange in an entirely different direction. In 1872 Claude Monet painted Impression Sunrise, a tiny orange sun and some orange light reflected on the clouds and water in the centre of a hazy blue landscape. This painting gave its name to the impressionist movement.

Orange became an important colour for all the impressionist painters. They all had studied the recent books on colour theory, and they know that orange placed next to azure blue made both colours much brighter. Auguste Renoir painted boats with stripes of chrome orange paint straight from the tube. Paul Cézanne did not use orange pigment, but created his own oranges with touches of yellow, red and ochre against a blue background. Toulouse-Lautrec often used oranges in the skirts of dancers and gowns of Parisiennes in the cafes and clubs he portrayed. For him it was the colour of festivity and amusement.

The post-impressionists went even further with orange. Paul Gauguin used oranges as backgrounds, for clothing and skin colour, to fill his pictures with light and exoticism. But no other painter used orange so often and dramatically as Vincent van Gogh. who had shared a house with Gauguin in Arles for a time. For Van Gogh orange and yellow were the pure sunlight of Provence. He created his own oranges with mixtures of yellow, ochre and red, and placed them next to slashes of sienna red and bottle green, and below a sky of turbulent blue and violet. He put an orange moon and stars in a cobalt blue sky. He wrote to his brother Theo of "searching for oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet, searching for broken colours and neutral colours to harmonize the brutality of extremes, trying to make the colours intense, and not a harmony of greys."[11]

20th and 21st centuries

In the 20th and 21st centuries, the colour orange had highly varied associations, both positive and negative.

The high visibility of orange made it a popular colour for certain kinds of clothing and equipment. During the Second World War, U.S. Navy pilots in the Pacific began to wear orange inflatable life jackets, which could be spotted by search and rescue planes. After the war, these jackets became common on both civilian and naval vessels of all sizes, and on aircraft that flew over water. Orange was also widely worn by workers on highways and by cyclists to avoid being hit by cars, and for the flights suits of the crews of the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station.

A herbicide called Agent Orange was widely sprayed from aircraft by the Royal Air Force during the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. Air Force during the Vietnam War to remove the forest and jungle cover beneath which enemy combatants were believed to be hiding, and to expose their supply routes. The chemical was not actually orange, but took its name from the colour of the steel drums in which it was stored. Agent Orange was toxic, and was later linked to birth defects and other health problems.

Orange also had a political dimension. In Ukraine in November–December 2004, it became the colour of the Orange Revolution, a popular movement which carried activist and reformer Viktor Yushchenko into the presidency.[12]

Science

Optics

In traditional colour theory, orange is a range of colours between red and yellow

In optics orange is the colour seen by the eye when looking at light with a wavelength between approximately 585–620 nm. It has a hue of 30° in HSV colour space.

In the traditional colour wheel used by painters orange is the range of colours between red and yellow, and painters can obtain orange simply by mixing red and yellow in various proportions; though these colours will never be as vivid as a pure orange pigment

In the RGB colour model the system used to create colours on a television or computer screen, orange is made by combining high intensity red light with a lower intensity green light, and the blue light turned off.

Orange is a tertiary colour numerically halfway between gamma-compressed red and yellow, as can be seen in the RGB colour wheel.

For painters blue is the complementary colour of orange. As many painters of the 19th century discovered, blue and orange reinforce each other. The painter Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo that in his paintings he was trying to reveal "the oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet ... trying to make the colours intense and not a harmony of grey".[13] In another letter he wrote simply, "there is no orange without blue."[14] Van Gogh, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and many other impressionist and post-impressionist painters frequently placed orange against azure or cobalt blue, to make both colours appear brighter.

The actual complement of orange is azure a colour 1/4 of the way between blue and green on the colour spectrum. The actual complementary colour of true blue is yellow.

Orange pigments are largely in the ochre or cadmium families, and absorb mostly greenish-blue light.

(See also shades of orange).

Pigments and dyes

  • A sample of orpiment from an arsenic mine in southern Russia. Orpiment has been used to make orange pigment since ancient times in ancient Egypt, Europe and China. Romans used the mineral for trade.

  • Realgar, an arsenic sulfide mineral 1.5-2.5 Mohs hardness, is highly toxic. It was used since ancient times until the 19th century to make red-orange pigment, as a poison, and a medicine.

  • A sample of crocoite crystals from Dundas extended mine in Tasmania. Discovered in 1797 by the French chemist Louis Vauquelin, it was used to make the first synthetic orange pigment, chrome orange, used by Pierre-Auguste Renoir and other painters.

  • Saffron, made from the hand-picked stigmas of the Crocus sativus flower, is used both as a dye and a spice.

  • The Curcuma longa plant is used to make turmeric, a common and less expensive substitute for saffron as a dye and colour.

  • Turmeric powder, first used as a dye, and later as a medicine and spice in South Asian cuisine.

Other orange pigments include:

  • Minium and massicot are bright yellow and orange pigments made since ancient times by heating lead oxide and its variants. Minium was used in the Byzantine Empire for making the red-orange colour on illuminated manuscripts, while massicot was used by ancient Egyptian scribes and in the Middle Ages. Both were toxic, and were replaced in the beginning of the 20th century by chrome orange and cadmium orange.[15]
  • Cadmium orange is a synthetic pigment made cadmium sulfide. It is a by-product of mining for zinc, but also occurs rarely in nature in the mineral greenockite. It is usually made by replacing some of the sulphur with selenium, which results in an expensive but deep and lasting colour. Selenium was discovered in 1817, but the pigment was not made commercially until 1910.[16]
  • Quinacridone orange is a synthetic organic pigment first identified in 1896 and manufactured in 1935. It makes a vivid and solid orange.
  • Diketo-pyrrolo pyrolle orange or DPP orange is a synthetic organic pigment first commercialized in 1986. It is sold under various commercial names, such as translucent orange. It makes an extremely bright and lasting orange, and is widely used to colour plastics and fibres, as well as in paints.[17]

Why carrots, pumpkins, oranges and autumn leaves are orange

The orange colour of carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. The carotenes themselves take their name from the carrot.[18] Autumn leaves also get their orange colour from carotenes. When the weather turns cold and the green chlorophyll stops flowing, the orange colour remains.

Before the 18th century, carrots from Asia were usually purple, while those in Europe were either white or red. Dutch farmers bred a variety that was orange; according to some sources, as a tribute to the stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, William of Orange.[19] The long orange Dutch carrot, first described in 1721, is the ancestor of the orange horn carrot, one of the most common types found in supermarkets today. It takes its name from the town of Hoorn, in the Netherlands.

Flowers

Orange is traditionally associated with the autumn season, with the harvest and autumn leaves. The flowers, like orange fruits and vegetables and autumn leaves, get their colour from the photosynthetic pigments called carotenes.

Animals

Foods

Orange is a very common colour of fruits, vegetables, spices, and other foods in many different cultures. As a result orange is the colour most often associated in western culture with taste and aroma.[20] Orange foods include peaches, apricots, mangoes, carrots, shrimp, salmon roe, and many other foods. Orange colour is provided by spices such as paprika, saffron and curry powder. In the United States, with Halloween on 31 October, and in North America with Thanksgiving in October (Canada) and November (U.S.) orange is assoiated with the harvest colour, and also is the colour of the carved pumpkins, or jack-o-lanterns, used to celebrate the holiday.

Food colourings

Nacho cheese Doritos, like many popular snack foods, contain Yellow 6, Yellow 5 and Red 40 synthetic food colour.
Wrapped slices of American cheese are now often coloured with annatto, a natural food colour made from the seeds of the achiote tree.

People associate certain colours with certain flavours, and the colour of food can influence the perceived flavour in anything from candy to wine.[21] Since orange is popularly associated with good flavour, many companies add orange food colouring to improve the appearance of their packaged foods. Orange pigments and dyes, synthetic or natural, are added to many orange sodas and juices, cheeses (particularly cheddar cheese, Gloucester cheese, and American cheese); snack foods, butter and margarine; breakfast cereals, ice cream, yoghurt, jam and candy. It is also often added to children's medicine, and to chicken feed to make the egg yolks more orange.

The United States Government and the European Union certify a small number of synthetic chemical colourings to be used in food. These are usually aromatic hydrocarbons, or azo dyes, made from petroleum. The most common ones are:

Because many consumers are worried about possible health consequences of synthetic dyes, some companies are beginning to use natural food colours. Since these food colours are natural, they do not require any certification from the Food and Drug Administration. The most popular natural food colours are:

  • Annatto, made from the seeds of the achiote tree. Annato contains carotenoids, the same ingredient that gives carrots and other vegetables their orange colour. Annato has been used to dye certain cheeses in Britain, particularly Gloucester cheese, since the 16th century. It is now commonly used to colour American cheese, snack foods, breakfast cereal, butter and margarine. It is used as a body paint by native populations in Central and South America. In India, women often put it, under the name sindoor, on their hairline to indicate that they are married.
  • Turmeric is a common spice in South Asia, Persia and the Mideast. It contains the pigments called curcuminoids, widely used as a dye for the robes of Buddhist monks. It is also often used in curry powders and to give flavour to mustard. It is now being used more frequently in Europe and the U.S. to give an orange colour to canned beverages, ice cream, yogurt, popcorn and breakfast cereal. The food colour is usually listed as E100.
  • Paprika oleoresin contains natural carotenoids, and is made from chili peppers. It is used to colour cheese, orange juice, spice mixtures and packaged sauces. It is also fed to chickens to make their egg yolks more orange.

Culture, associations and symbolism

China

In Confucianism the religion and philosophy of ancient China, orange was the colour of transformation. In China and India, the colour took its name not from the orange fruit, but from saffron, the finest and most expensive dye in Asia. According to Confucianism, existence was governed by the interaction of the male active principle, the yang, and the female passive principle, the yin. Yellow was the colour of perfection and nobility; red was the colour of happiness and power. Yellow and red were compared to light and fire, spirituality and sensuality, seemingly opposite but really complementary. Out of the interaction between the two came orange, the colour of transformation.[22]

Hinduism and Buddhism

A wide variety of colours, ranging from a slightly orange yellow to a deep orange red, all simply called saffron, are closely associated with Hinduism and Buddhism, and are commonly worn by monks and holy men across Asia.

In Hinduism, the divinity Krishna is commonly portrayed dressed in yellow or yellow orange. Yellow and saffron are also the colours worn by sadhu, or wandering holy men in India.

In Buddhism orange (or more precisely saffron) was the colour of illumination, the highest state of perfection.[23] The saffron colours of robes to be worn by monks were defined by the Buddha himself and his followers in the 5th century BC. The robe and its colour is a sign of renunciation of the outside world and commitment to the order. The candidate monk, with his master, first appears before the monks of the monastery in his own clothes, with his new robe under his arm. and asks to enter the order. He then takes his vows, puts on the robes, and with his begging bowl, goes out to the world. Thereafter, he spends his mornings begging and his afternoons in contemplation and study, either in a forest, garden, or in the monastery.[24]

According to Buddhist scriptures and commentaries, the robe dye is allowed to be obtained from six kinds of substances: roots and tubers, plants, bark, leaves, flowers and fruits. The robes should also be boiled in water a long time to get the correctly sober colour. Saffron and ochre, usually made with dye from the curcuma longa plant or the heartwood of the jackfruit tree, are the most common colours. The so-called forest monks usually wear ochre robes and city monks saffron, though this is not an official rule.[25]

The colour of robes also varies somewhat among the different "vehicles," or schools of Buddhism, and by country, depending on their doctrines and the dyes available. The monks of the strict Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism, practiced in Tibet, wear the most colourful robes of saffron and red. The monks of Mahayana Buddhism, practiced mainly in Japan, China and Korea, wear lighter yellow or saffron, often with white or black. Monks of Hinayana Buddhism, practiced in Southeast Asia, usually wear ochre or saffron colour. Monks of the forest tradition in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia wear robes of a brownish ochre, dyed from the wood of the jackfruit tree.[24][26]

  • Young Thai Buddhist monks

  • A Hindu sadhu, or ascetic wandering monk or holy man, in Kathmandu, Nepal.

  • Buddhist monks at the promotion ceremony of a monk in Thailand

  • Buddhist monks in Tibet

  • A Japanese Buddhist monk in downtown Tokyo

Colour of amusement

In Europe and America orange and yellow are the colours most associated with amusement, frivolity and entertainment. In this regard, orange is the exact opposite of its complementary colour, blue, the colour of calm and reflection. Mythological paintings traditionally showed Bacchus (known in Greek mythology as Dionysus), the god of wine, ritual madness and ecstasy, dressed in orange. Clowns have long worn orange wigs. Toulouse-Lautrec used a palette of yellow, black and orange in his posters of Paris cafes and theatres, and Henri Matisse used an orange, yellow and red palette in his painting, the Joy of Living.[27]

Colour of visibility and warning

Orange is the colour most easily seen in dim light or against the water, making it, particularly the shade known as safety orange, the colour of choice for life rafts, life jackets or buoys. Highway temporary signs about construction or detours in the United States are orange, because of its visibility and its association with danger.

It is worn by people wanting to be seen, including highway workers and lifeguards. Prisoners are also sometimes dressed in orange clothing to make them easier to see during an escape. Lifeguards on the beaches of Los Angeles County, both real and in television series, wear orange swimsuits to make them stand out. Orange astronaut suits have the highest visibility in space, or against blue sea. An aircraft's two types of "black box," or flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder, are actually bright orange, so they can be found more easily.

The Golden Gate Bridge at the entrance of San Francisco Bay is painted international orange to make it more visible in the fog. Next to red, it is the colour most popular for extroverts, and as a symbol of activity.[28]

Orange is sometimes used, like red and yellow, as a colour warning of possible danger or calling for caution. A skull against an orange background means a toxic substance or poison.

In the colour system devised by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to measure the threat of terrorist attack, an orange level is second only to a red level. The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices specifies orange for use in temporary and construction signage.

  • Highway temporary sign

  • In the United States, orange indicates the second highest threat level of terrorist attack.

  • The Golden Gate Bridge is painted international orange to make it visible in the fog

  • An orange lifebuoy on the U.S. Coast Guard ship Eagle.

  • The "black box" is actually bright orange

  • Japanese scientist and astronaut Naoko Yamazaki worked aboard the U.S. Space Shuttle.

Academia

  • In the United States and Canada, orange regalia is associated with the field of engineering.[29]

Selected flags

  • Flag of India (1947). The top-most colour in the flag is officially called bhagwa, or saffron. (However, to some people, it is indistinguishable from orange.) It was originally chosen by Mohandas Gandhi, and originally stood for the Hindu community in India, then for the sacrifice of the people.[30]

  • Flag of Ireland (1919) The orange represents King William III, or William of Orange, and the Protestant community in Ireland.[31]

  • Flag of Côte d'Ivoire (1959). The orange stands for the savannah, the fertile land in the north of the country, opposed to the green of the forests in the south.

  • Flag of Niger (1960). The orange is said to represent the Sahara desert in the north, and the orange disk symbolizes either the sun or independence.

  • Flag of Sri Lanka (1950). The orange band represents the Sri Lankan Tamils, one of the three main ethnic groups in the country.

  • Flag of Armenia (1990). According to the Armenian Constitution, the orange (also called apricot colour) represents the creativity and hard-working nature of the Armenian people.

  • Flag of Bhutan (1969). The orange background represents the Buddhist spiritual tradition.

Geography

Contemporary political and social movements

Because of its symbolic meaning as the colour of activity, orange is often used as the colour of political and social movements.

Religion

(See Orange in Hinduism and Buddhism above)

    Metaphysics

    • The "New Age Prophetess", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the "fifth ray" of "Concrete Science" is represented by the colour orange. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Orange Ray".[33]
    • Orange is used to symbolically represent the second (Swadhisthana) chakra.[34]

    In the military

    In the United States Army, orange has traditionally been associated with the dragoons, the mounted infantry units which eventually became the U.S. Cavalry. The 1st Cavalry Regiment was originally founded in 1833 as the United States Dragoons. The modern coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry features the colour orange and orange-yellow shade called dragoon yellow, the colours of the early U.S. dragoon regiments.[35] The U.S. Signal Corps, founded at the beginning of the American Civil War, adopted orange and white as its official colours in 1872. Orange was adopted because it was the colour of a signal fire, historically used at night while smoke was used during the day, to communicate with distant army units.

    • The uniform of a French cavalry regiment in 1786.

    • The coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry regiment, founded as a dragoon regiment, features a gold dragon and an orange shield, the traditional colours of the dragoons.

    • The shoulder sleeve insignia of the 1st Signal Command of the U.S. Signal Corps. Orange, the colour of traditional signal fires, and white are the official colours of the Signal Corps.

    Sports

    Orange, because of its common association with activity and visibility, is a popular colour for sports teams.

    Dutch national sports teams
    Major League Baseball

    National Basketball Association

    National Football League

    Indian Premier League

    National Hockey League

    Australian Football League

    National Rugby League

    A league

    Football League Championship

    Conference Premier

    Scottish Premier League

    Ukrainian Premier League

    Major League Soccer

    Bulgarian A Professional Football Group

    Norwegian Premier League

    Canadian Football League

    Gaelic Athletic Association

    United Football League

    Philippine Basketball Association

    NCAA DIvision I

    See also

    References

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    Notes

    1. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 149–158
    2. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    3. ↑ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 5th edition, 2002.
    4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    5. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    6. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    7. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    10. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    11. ↑ Vincent van Gogh, Lettres a Theo, p. 184.
    12. ↑ Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 0199215294 (page 331)
    13. ↑ Correspondance of Vincent van Gogh, No. 459A, cited in John Gage, Couleur et Culture: Usages et significations de la couleur de l'Antiquité à l'abstraction.
    14. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, p. 152.
    15. ↑ Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, pp. 46–47.
    16. ↑ Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, p. 121.
    17. ↑ Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, pp. 66–67
    18. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    19. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    20. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, p. 152
    21. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    22. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 155–56.
    23. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 158
    24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Henri Arvon (1951). Le bouddhisme (pp. 61–64)
    25. ↑ http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/robe_txt.htm |The Buddhanet- buddhist studies- the monastic robe (retrieved November 25, 2012)
    26. ↑ Anne Varichon (2000), Couleurs: pigments et teintures dans les mains des peuples, p. 62
    27. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 152–153.
    28. ↑ Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 154–155
    29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    30. ↑ Roy 2006, pp. 503–505
    31. ↑ National Flag, Taoiseach.gov.ie, 2007. Retrieved on 11 June 2007.
    32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

    External links

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