Muhanna ibn Isa
| Muhanna ibn 'Isa | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emir of Palmyra | |||||
| Reign | 1284–1293 1295–1312 1317–1320 1330–1335 |
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| Predecessor | Isa ibn Muhanna | ||||
| Successor | Musa ibn Muhanna | ||||
| Amir al-ʿarab | |||||
| Reign | 1284–1293 1295–1312 1317–1320 1330–1335 |
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| Predecessor | Isa ibn Muhanna | ||||
| Successor | Musa ibn Muhanna | ||||
| Died | 1335 Near al-Salamiyah |
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| Issue | Musa Suleiman Ahmad Fayad Hayar Malik |
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| House | Al Fadl | ||||
| Father | Isa ibn Muhanna | ||||
Hussam al-Din Muhanna ibn 'Isa ibn Muhanna ibn Mani' ibn Haditha ibn Ghudayya ibn Fadl ibn Rab'ia al-Ta'i (also known as Muhanna II; d. 1335)[1] was the Emir of Palmyra as a vassal of the Mamluks and the leader of a prominent Bedouin tribe in the Syrian Desert in the late 13th and early 14th century. He was described by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the eldest and most senior amir" of the related Al Fadl Bedouin tribe during his era.[2]
Origin
The Al Fadl tribe's ancestor Muhanna ibn Mani' ibn Haditha ibn Ghudayya ibn Fadl ibn Rabi'a al-Ta'i or "Muhanna I" was the head of the tribe, itself a branch of the larger Arab tribe of Tayy. Muhanna I was sometimes referred to as the "king of Arabs" by the Mamluk government; his son 'Isa became the first emir of Palmyra as a reward for supporting the Mamluk sultan Qalawun in the 1281 Battle of Homs.[3] Two of 'Isa's sons, Muhanna II and Fadl II, each established a branch of the greater Al Fadl tribe, known as the Al Muhanna and Al Fadl branches, respectively.
Reign
Muhanna succeeded his father 'Isa as lord of Palmyra in 1284,[3] after receiving the appointment from Sultan Qalawun.[1] In 1293, Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil had Muhanna, Fadl and their sons arrested in Homs and imprisoned in the Cairo Citadel, after which Muhanna's distant cousin Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, from the Al Ali branch of Al Fadl, replaced him.[4] Muhanna and his sons were released and Muhanna was restored as amir al-ʿarab and lord of Palmyra two years later by Sultan al-Adil Kitbugha.[1][4]
In 1311, the Mamluk na'ib (governor) of Aleppo, Qarasunqur, defected to the Mongol Ilkhanids in 1311 and given refuge by Muhanna, who attempted unsuccessfully to mediate between Qarasunqur and Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1310–1341).[4] These circumstances together with Muhanna's suspicions of an-Nasir's ill disposition toward him prompted Muhanna and Qarasunqur to seek safe haven in Ilkhanid-held Iraq.[5] To that end, in 1312, Muhanna sent his son Musa to confer with Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate, and afterward he defected to the latter with his son Sulayman;[1][6] unlike his father, Musa remained loyal to the Mamluks.[7] Öljaitü gave Muhanna fiefs in al-Hillah, south of Baghdad.[6] An-Nasir Muhammad consequently dismissed Muhanna from his principality and appointed Fadl the lord of Palmyra.[1] Muhanna arrived at the Ilkhan's court in 1316, but then decided to go back to Palmyra where he was contacted by the sultan who summoned him to Cairo, the seat of the Mamluks.[8] Muhanna avoided meeting the sultan, and sent his brothers and sons instead. He was able to gain the forgiveness of the sultan who subsequently restored him to his position in 1317.[8]
The defection and consequent reconciliation with an-Nasir marked the first episode in Muhanna's policy of extracting maximum gain from both the Mamluks and the Ilkhanids.[5] According to contemporary historian Abu'l Fida, who maintained good ties with the Al Fadl, Muhanna pursued a policy whereby both the Mamluks and Ilkhanids accorded him fiefs, money and robes of honor while he stayed effectively neutral, "not going to this party or that; a case the like of which had never happened before".[5] Moreover, Fadl too participated in this policy with Muhanna, albeit discreetly; the contemporary historian al-Umari wrote "Muhanna and Fadl were agreed at heart, but openly they were otherwise".[5]
An-Nasir sought to keep the Al Fadl loyal to him and prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate, as well as to ensure that they did not disrupt peaceful travel on the roads. To accomplish this, an-Nasir adopted an unprecedented policy among Mamluk sultans by distributing fiefs (iqta'at) and grants to the Bedouin, namely the Al Fadl. Moreover, an-Nasir granted Al Fadl members' requests for possession of lucrative fiefs belonging to the Mamluk emirs of Aleppo, Hama or Damascus (the Mamluk emirs were typically compensated with other fiefs).[9] In addition to Palmyra, Sarmin and Salamiyah, Muhanna was also given the town of Douma in the Ghouta near Damascus as an iqta.[10] Muhanna criticized an-Nasir for the lavish distribution of fiefs to his tribesmen out of belief that such excesses would ruin the character of the Bedouin and ultimately weaken the Muslim armies.[2] He also asserted to an-Nasir that "even if he [sic] wished to change this situation ... you will no longer be able to do so" since the tribesmen would not willingly forfeit their new properties.[2]
Muhanna later reestablished contact with the Ilkhanate, causing the sultan to banish him with his whole tribe from Palmyra in 1320.[8] According to Ibn Abi al-Fada'il, Muhanna was punished because he went back on an agreement his son Sulayman made with an-Nasir in 1319.[4] The agreement stipulated that the Al Fadl would receive 250,000 silver dirhams and the fiefs of Adhri'at and Bosra in return for joining the Mamluk army as auxiliaries in an upcoming campaign against Ilkhanid-held Sinjar; an-Nasir gave them the fiefs and money, but when the Mamluk army arrived, Muhanna's forces stopped it at 'Urd near Palmyra and refused it passage through Al Fadl territory.[4] The tribe was exiled from their encampments in the Palmyrene steppe and were exiled deep into the Syrian Desert.[8][4]
Ten years later, Muhanna contacted the Ayyubid emir al-Afdal Muhammad of Hama (vassal of the Mamluks), and requested that he intercede with the sultan on Muhanna's behalf;[8] an-Nasir ultimately forgave Muhanna, reinstating him in 1330.[11] This marked the end of Muhanna's policy of playing the Mamluks and Ilkhanids against each other.[5] Thereafter, Muhanna remained loyal to the sultanate until his death near al-Salamiyah in June 1335, at around age 80.[11] According to historian A. S. Tritton, "there was public lamentation" for Muhanna's death and "black was worn" in mourning.[12]
Legacy
By 1352, the sons of Muhanna ibn Isa and their offspring amounted to 110 men, each starting their own clan, using the title of emir (prince) and possessing fiefs.[13] According to Levanoni, Muhanna's warning to an-Nasir about the effects of distributing and subsequently seizing fiefs "came true only a short time" after Muhanna's death,[13] when his son and successor,[12] Musa, threatened to start a Bedouin revolt and defect to the Ilkhanate if an-Nasir did not return the Al Fadl's fiefs.[13]
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Levanoni 1995, p. 177.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Hiyari 1975, p. 518.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Hiyari 1975, p. 519.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Tritton 1948, p. 568.
- ↑ Tritton 1948, pp. 568–569.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Levanoni 1995, pp. 176–177.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Tritton 1948, p. 569.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Levanoni 1995, p. 178.
Bibliography
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