Hunga Tonga

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Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai
File:Hunga Tonga OLI.jpg
Landsat 8 image of Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai in January 2017.
Highest point
Elevation 114 metres (374 ft)[1]
Listing List of volcanoes in Tonga
Coordinates Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Geography
Location Tonga Islands
Geology
Mountain type Submarine volcano
Last eruption 14 January 2022 (Ongoing)
Lua error in Module:Infobox_mapframe at line 185: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
An interactive map of Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai

Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai was an uninhabited volcanic island[2] that existed in the South Pacific from 2009 to 2022, located about 30 km (19 mi) south of the submarine volcano of Fonuafoʻou and 65 km (40 mi) north of Tongatapu, Tonga's main island.[3] The previously twin islands of Hunga Tonga and Hunga Haʻapai were merged by a volcanic eruption in 2009, and a more explosive eruption separated the islands again and reduced them in size in 2022. The erupting volcano is part of the highly active Tonga–Kermadec Islands volcanic arc, a subduction zone extending from New Zealand north-northeast to Fiji.[4][5] It lies about 100 km (62 mi) above a very active seismic zone.[5][6] The island arc is formed at the convergent boundary where the Pacific Plate subducts under the Indo-Australian Plate.[6][7][8]

Volcano and caldera

File:Hunga Tonga 1978 D3C1214-401098A023.jpg
Hunga Tonga and Hunga Haʻapai in 1978

The volcano itself is a submarine volcano that breached sea level in 2009 due to a volcanic eruption and lies underwater between two islands, Hunga Tonga and Hunga Haʻapai, which are respectively the remnants of the western and northern rim of the volcano's caldera.[3][9] The caldera is roughly 150 m below sea-level, and rises 2000 m from the sea-floor.[10] The two islands (part of the Haʻapai group)[11] are about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) apart,[12] and each is about 2 km (1.2 mi) long and composed largely of andesite.[5][6] This andesite tends to be of the basaltic type.[13] Hunga Tonga reaches an elevation of 149 m (489 ft), while Hunga Haʻapai comes to only 128 m (420 ft) above sea level.[3] Neither island is large: Hunga Tonga was roughly 390,000 m2 (0.15 sq mi) and Hunga Haʻapai 650,000 m2 (0.25 sq mi) in size before they were connected.[14] They are much smaller after the 2022 eruption. Neither island was developed due to a lack of an acceptable anchorage, although there were large guano deposits on each island.[11][15][16]

Samples from the islands suggest a long eruptive history.[10] One pyroclastic flow was dated to 1040–1180 CE, correlating to ash deposits found on Tongatapu, and to an unknown tropical eruption in 1108 CE that had produced 1°C of global cooling.[10] The caldera is believed to have been formed by this eruption.[10] Submarine eruptions at a rocky shoal – about 3.2 km (2.0 mi) southeast of Hunga Haʻapai and 3 km (1.9 mi) south of Hunga Tonga – were reported in 1912 and 1937.[3] Another eruption occurred from a fissure 1 km (0.62 mi) south-southeast of Hunga Haʻapai in 1988.[3]

The islands figure in Tongan mythology as one of the few islands which were not overfished, and hence thrown down from heaven to land on earth.[17][18] Tongans called them the islands which "jump back and forth" (i.e. suffer earthquakes).[17] The first Europeans to see the islands were those with the Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire in 1616. The British explorer Captain James Cook visited them several times in 1777 and learned their Tongan names.[19][20][21]

Geography

The current extent of the island includes both the former islands of Hunga Tonga and Hunga Haʻapai. The initial 2009 eruption linked newly formed land with the larger and more westerly Hunga Haʻapai. Hunga Tonga, in the northeast, has since become attached via a tombolo, and further sandy deposits have built up at the southern end of the connection with Hunga Haʻapai. The caldera itself has eroded rapidly in the south, originally allowing an opening of the crater to the ocean in the southeast. This has become separated from the sea by a shallow sandbar, forming a lagoon. Initially it was believed that the entire island would be eroded rapidly, but by 2017, scientists believed that the process could take decades.[22]

History

2009 eruption

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Main article: 2009 Tonga undersea volcanic eruption
File:Hungatonga aster 20090326.jpg
False-color satellite image taken March 25, 2009, showing new land south of Hunga Haʻapai. Clouds cover the space between the new land and Hunga Haʻapai. The vent is the nearly perfect circular hole near the southern edge of the new land. The ocean around the erupting volcano is bright blue, indicating ash, rock, and other volcanic debris. Plant-covered land is red. Note that Hunga Haʻapai is now colored black, indicating that plants on the island are now buried in ash or dead.

On March 16, 2009, a submarine eruption near Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai began spewing steam, smoke, pumice, and ash thousands of feet into the sky.[23][24] By March 21, Tonga's chief geologist, Kelepi Mafi, reported lava and ash issuing from two vents—one on the uninhabited island Hunga Haʻapai and another about 100 m (330 ft) offshore. The eruption had filled the gap between the two vents, creating new land surface that measured hundreds of square metres.[25][26] The eruption devastated Hunga Haʻapai, covering it in black ash and stripping it of vegetation and fauna.[26]

The volcanic eruption drew worldwide attention. The volcano was featured in a segment of the television program Angry Planet in 2009.[27]

2014–15 eruption

File:Hunga Tonga eruption January 2015 (N).jpg
Satellite image of the 2014 underwater volcanic eruption at Hunga Tonga

In November and December 2014, volcanic activity at volcanoes and a series of earthquakes occurred north of Tonga for several weeks, indicating renewed volcanic activity in the area.

A new eruption began at Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai on December 19, 2014. Local fishermen reported a tall white steam plume rising from the ocean over the undersea volcanic mount. Satellite images taken on December 29 showed the eruption continuing, with a smoke and ash plume rising from the site, and discolored seawater (possibly caused by smoke and ash released below the surface, or by disturbance of the seabed).[28] The eruption continued into 2015, with a tall ash cloud rising 3 km (9,800 ft) into the sky on January 6, 2015.[29]

The eruption entered a new stage on January 11, 2015, when the volcano began sending ash plumes as high as 9 km (30,000 ft) into the sky. An Air New Zealand flight on January 12 had to be diverted to Samoa, while a number of other flights between New Zealand and Tonga were cancelled.[30] An ash plume reached 4.5 km (15,000 ft) on January 13. Officials identified two vents, one on Hunga Haʻapai and another about 100 m (330 ft) offshore and underwater.[31] Large rocks and wet, dense ash were being ejected up to 400 m (1,300 ft) into the air.[31][32] By January 16, a new island had been formed by the explosion.[33] Tongan officials estimated the new island to be 1 km (0.62 mi) wide, 2 km (1.2 mi) long, and 100 m (330 ft) high,[31][32] although geologists said the new island would probably exist only a few months until ocean waves wore it down.[34] Ash and acid rain were falling in an area about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the new island, and Hunga Tonga and Hunga Haʻapai had both been denuded of vegetation.[31][32]

Despite the volcano's eruption, which was spewing a steam cloud 1 km (0.62 mi) into the air,[32] international flights to Tonga resumed on January 16, as volcano and aviation experts deemed the eruption no longer a threat to airliners.[31]

Geologists from Tonga and New Zealand who visited the volcano on January 19 said the eruption had quieted in the last 24 hours. They noted that nearly all the eruption was now coming from the vent on the new island, with steam clouds rising to a height of 7 to 10 km (4.3–6.2 mi), and ash and rock being thrown to a height of about 200 to 300 m (660–980 ft). Emission of ash was limited, with magma rocks hitting the ocean causing some steam explosions. The team found no floating volcanic debris, such as pumice rafts, and the smell of volcanic gases was intermittent. Tongan officials established a zone 20 km (12 mi) in diameter around the island to protect visitors from rock, ash, and acid rain.[35]

Tongan officials declared the eruption at an end on January 26,[36] after observing no new gas, ash, or rock emerging from the island vent.[37] By this time, the island was 1 to 2 km (0.62 to 1.24 mi) wide, 2 km (1.2 mi) long, and 120 m (390 ft) high.[36][37] The new island had joined with Hunga Haʻapai, and was about 200 m (660 ft) away from joining with Hunga Tonga.[36][37] Locals visiting the island said seabirds were nesting.[38]

In June 2015, entrepreneur Ian Argus Stuart became the first person to overnight on this new island formation. Spending 11 nights on the island, Ian Argus Stuart survived eating nothing but seagull eggs and squid. Mr Stuart went to Hunga Tonga with the help of the Spanish explorer Alvaro Cerezo, who provides castaway experiences to remote desert islands around the planet.[39]

Post-2015 scientific study

The volcanic ash that forms much of Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai has reacted with the warm oceanic water around it. This chemical reaction has turned the ash into much harder rock, and volcanologists believed the island would last for several decades rather than be eroded. This made Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai only the third volcanic island in the last 150 years to survive more than a few months.[40]

Scientists at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center have been studying Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai, using it as a model for volcanic shapes on Mars. In an article published in late 2017, the scientists concluded that Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai has eroded in ways that are remarkably similar to the erosion patterns seen on similar landforms on Mars. The scientists noted that this suggests Mars was once flooded briefly by water, but that the water receded fairly quickly. Further study of the similarities between Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai and Martian volcanic landforms is needed, they said.[40]

In October 2018, scientists visited the island and discovered that its surface is covered with gravel, sticky mud, and vegetation. The island has also been populated by a variety of bird life. They also found that the island seems to be eroding more quickly than previously thought, due to rainfall.[41][42]

December 2021–January 2022 eruption

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Main article: 2022 Hunga Tonga eruption and tsunami
File:Tonga Eruption GOES-17 1-15-2022.gif
Hunga Tonga eruption early on 15 January 2022, taken from the GOES-17 geostationary weather satellite positioned above the equator at 137.2°W longitude.

On 20 December 2021 the volcano erupted again, causing a large plume that was visible from Nukuʻalofa.[43] The Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre Wellington issued an advisory to airlines.[44] Explosions could be heard up to 170 kilometres (110 mi) away.[45] The initial eruption continued until 2 am on 21 December.[43] Activity continued, and on 25 December, satellite imagery showed that the island had increased in size.[46]

Volcanic activity died down on 5 January[47] before restarting on 13 January after the volcano sent an ash cloud 17 km (55,000 ft) into the atmosphere.[48] The government subsequently issued a tsunami warning.[49][50] On 15 January, the volcano violently erupted again, about seven times more powerfully than the eruption on 20 December 2021. There were numerous reports of loud booms across Tonga and other countries, such as Fiji and as far away as New Zealand and Australia. A boom was heard in Alaska seven hours after eruption meaning the sound wave traveled 830 mph.[51] Near the eruption, the explosion damaged property, including shattered windows.[52] A tsunami warning was issued just after 5:30 p.m. by the Tonga Meteorological Services and the tsunami flooded coastal areas in Tonga. A 3.9 ft (1.2 m) tsunami was observed in Nukuʻalofa, Tonga and a 2.0 ft (0.61 m) one in American Samoa.[53]

Two people were killed in Peru and two fishermen were injured in San Gregorio, California.[54][55]

It was reported on 16 January that radar surveys before and after the eruption show that most of the island has been destroyed. Only small parts of Hunga Tonga and Hunga Haʻapai remained.[56]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  4. ↑ Clift, Peter D.; Rose, Estelle F.; Shimizu, Nobumichi; Layne, Graham D.; Draut, Amy E.; and Regelous, Marcel. "Tracing the Evolving Flux From the Subducting Plate in the Tonga-Kermadec Arc System Using Boron in Volcanic Glass." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 65:19 (October 2001). doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(01)00670-6
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Gupta, Alok K. Igneous Rocks. Mumbai, India: Allied Publishers, 1998. ISBN 81-7023-784-X
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Ewart, A.; Bryan, W.B.; and Gill, J.B. "Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Younger Volcanic Islands of Tonga, S.W. Pacific." Journal of Petrology. 14:3 (1973). doi:10.1093/petrology/14.3.429
  7. ↑ Ewart, A. "A Petrological Study of the Younger Tongan Andesites and Dacites, and the Olivine Tholeiites of Niua Fo'ou Island, S. W. Pacific." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 58:1 (January 1976) doi:10.1007/BF00384740
  8. ↑ Hawkesworth, C.J.; Turner, S.P.; McDermott, F.; Peate, D.W.; and van Calsteren, P. "U-Th Isotopes in Arc Magmas: Implications for Element Transfer from the Subducted Crust." Science. 276:5312 (April 25, 1997). doi:10.1126/science.276.5312.551
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Wells, Susan M.; Sheppard, Charles; and Jenkins, Martin. Coral Reefs of the World: Central and Western Pacific. United Nations Environment Programme, 1988. ISBN 2-88032-945-0
  12. ↑ Pacific Islands Pilot. London: United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, 1969.
  13. ↑ https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017GL076621 Archived 2021-11-14 at the Wayback Machine J. B. Garvin, D. A. Slayback,V. Ferrini,J., Frawley,C., Giguere, G. R. Asrar, K. Andersen, 2018. Monitoring and Modeling the Rapid Evolution of Earth's Newest Volcanic Island: Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha'apai (Tonga) Using High Spatial Resolution Satellite Observations
  14. ↑ Dahl, Arthur L. Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. United Nations Environment Programme, 1986. ISBN 2-88032-509-9
  15. ↑ Fletcher, Matt and Keller, Nancy J. Tonga. Oakland, California: Lonely Planet, 2001. ISBN 1-74059-061-9.
  16. ↑ "Bulletin – Department of Minerals and Energy, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics". Australia Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, 1964.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Gifford, Edward Winslow. Tongan Myths and Tales. London: The British Museum, 1924.
  18. ↑ Nunn, Patrick D. "Fished Up or Thrown Down: The Geography of Pacific Island Origin Myths". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 93:2 (November 2004).
  19. ↑ Suren, Peter. Essays on the History of the Discovery and Exploration of Tonga by the Europeans. Nukuʼalofa, Kingdom of Tonga: Friendly Islands Bookshop, 2001.
  20. ↑ Rutherford, Noel. Friendly Islands: A History of Tonga. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1977. ISBN 0-19-550519-0
  21. ↑ Cook, James. The Journals of Captain Cook. John Cawte Beaglehole and Philip Edwards. New York: Penguin Classics, 1999. ISBN 0-14-043647-2
  22. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ Tongan inspection team heads to undersea volcano Archived 2019-02-09 at the Wayback Machine March 19, 2009, phys.org/news, accessed 7-02-2019
  24. ↑ The date the eruption began is uncertain. According to the Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism program, "Observers flying near the area of Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai (about 62 km NNW of Nuku'alofa, the capital of Tonga) on 16 or 17 March reported seeing an eruption." See: SI/USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report. 11 March-17 March 2009. Archived 13 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine The report cites Keizo Gates' Web log, dated March 16, 2009, which contains photos allegedly taken from civilian aircraft late on the afternoon of March 16. See: Gates, Keizo. "New Tonga Eruption" Kzo.net. March 16, 2009. Archived April 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine The Smithsonian subsequently confirmed that the eruption began on March 16. See: SI/USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report. 18 March–24 March 2009. Archived 2 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ Percival, Jenny. "Underwater Volcano Creates New Island Off Tonga." Archived 2016-12-08 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian. 21 March 2009.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "'No Living Thing Left' As Tonga Volcano Erupts." Archived 2012-07-06 at the Wayback Machine Agence France Presse. March 20, 2009.
  27. ↑ "Entertainment," Cape Argus, November 20, 2009.
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.; Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ New Tonga island 'now home to flowers and owls' Archived 2019-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, bbc.co.uk/news, accessed 2019-02-07
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  48. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  49. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  54. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  55. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

External links

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