Brickwork

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Decorative Tudor brick chimneys, Hampton Court Palace, UK
Twelfth-century temple brickwork, Ayutthaya, Thailand
Courtyard 2, Yemen
Polychromatic and indented brickwork in a Mid Victorian terrace in West London

Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks—called courses—[1][2] are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall.

Brick is a popular medium for constructing buildings, and examples of brickwork are found through history as far back as the Bronze Age. The fired-brick faces of the ziggurat of ancient Dur-Kurigalzu in Iraq date from around 1400 BC, and the brick buildings of ancient Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan were built around 2600 BC. Much older examples of brickwork made with dried (but not fired) bricks may be found in such ancient locations as Jericho in the West Bank, Çatal Hüyük in Anatolia, and Mehrgarh in Pakistan. These structures have survived from the Stone Age to the present day.

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Co-ordinating dimensions

Parts of brickwork include bricks, beds and perpends. The bed is the mortar upon which a brick is laid.[3] A perpend is a vertical joint between any two bricks and is usually—but not always—filled with mortar.[4]

The dimensions of these parts are usually co-ordinated such that two bricks laid side by side separated only by the width of a perpend have a total width identical to the length of a single brick laid transversely on top of them.

An example of a co-ordinating metric commonly used for bricks in the UK is as follows:[5][6][7]

  • Bricks of dimensions 215 mm x 102.5 mm × 65 mm;
  • Mortar beds and perpends of a uniform 10 mm.

In this case the co-ordinating metric works because the length of a single brick (215 mm) is equal to the total of the width of a brick (102.5 mm) plus a perpend (10 mm) plus the width of a brick (102.5 mm).

There are many other brick sizes worldwide, and many of them use this same co-ordinating principle.

Orientation

Six positions

A brick is given a classification based on how it is laid, and how the exposed face is oriented relative to the face of the finished wall.

Stretcher or Stretching brick
A brick laid flat with its long narrow side exposed.[8]
Header or Heading brick
A brick laid flat with its width exposed.[8]
Soldier
A brick laid vertically with its long narrow side exposed.[9]
Sailor
A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick exposed.[10]
Rowlock
A brick laid on the long narrow side with the short end of the brick exposed.[11]
Shiner or Rowlock Stretcher
A brick laid on the long narrow side with the broad face of the brick exposed.[12]

Cut

The practice of laying uncut full-sized bricks wherever possible gives brickwork its maximum possible strength. In the diagrams below, such uncut full-sized bricks are coloured as follows:

  Stretcher
  Header

Occasionally though a brick must be cut to fit a given space, or to be the right shape for fulfilling some particular purpose such as generating an offset—called a lap—at the beginning of a course.[13] In some cases these special shapes or sizes are manufactured. In the diagrams below, some of the cuts most commonly used for generating a lap are coloured as follows:

  Three-quarter bat – stretching: A brick cut to three-quarters of its length, and laid flat with its long, narrow side exposed.
  Three-quarter bat – heading: A brick cut to three-quarters of its length, and laid flat with its short side exposed.
  Half bat: A brick cut in half across its length, and laid flat.
  Queen closer: A brick cut in half down its width, and laid with its smallest face exposed and standing vertically. A queen closer is often used for the purpose of creating a lap.[14]

Less frequently used cuts are all coloured as follows:

  Quarter bat: A brick cut to a quarter of its length.
  Three-quarter queen closer: A queen closer cut to three-quarters of its length.
  King closer: A brick with one corner cut away, leaving one header face at half its standard width.[15]

Bonding

A nearly universal rule in brickwork is that perpends should not vertically align in any two successive courses.[16]

A second practice particularly observed in older examples of brickwork is that of building brickwork thicker than the width of any of its individual bricks. In such cases, some of the bricks may well be tied together into the depth of the wall. If, for example, a wall describing an east-west line is under construction, then bricks oriented to point north-south may be built into the width of the wall, their length spanning two widths of brick and tying the brickwork on the transverse plane. Historically, this was the dominant method for consolidating the transverse strength of walls.

Brickwork observing either or both of these two conventions is described as being laid in one or another bond.[17][18]

Wall ties

The advent during the mid twentieth century of the cavity wall saw the popularisation and development of another method of strengthening brickwork—the wall tie. A cavity wall comprises two totally discrete walls—each one of which is called a wythe or leaf.[19][20] A cavity separates the two leaves so that there is no masonry connection between them at all.[21] Typically the main loads taken by the foundations are carried there by the inner leaf, and the major functions of the external leaf are to protect the whole from weather, and to provide a fitting aesthetic finish. Although the two leaves may not share the structural load, their transverse rigidity still needs to be guaranteed, and must come from some source other than interlocking bricks. The device used to satisfy this need is the insertion at regular intervals of wall ties into the cavity wall's mortar beds.[22][23]

Thickness

Brickwork is said to be one brick thick if it has a total width equal to the length of one of its regular component bricks. Accordingly, a wall of a single leaf is a wall of one half brick thickness; a wall with the simplest possible masonry transverse bond is said to be one brick thick, and so on.[24] The thickness specified for a wall is determined by such factors as damp proofing considerations, whether or not the wall has a cavity, load-bearing requirements, expense, and the era during which the architect was or is working.[25][26] Wall thickness specification has proven considerably various, and while some non-load-bearing brick walls may be as little as half a brick thick, others brick walls are much thicker. The Monadnock Building in Chicago—for example—is a very tall masonry building, and has load-bearing brick walls nearly two metres thick at the base.[27] The majority of brick walls are however usually between one and three bricks thick. At these more modest wall thicknesses, distinct patterns have emerged allowing for a structurally sound layout of bricks internal to each particular specified thickness of wall.

Load-bearing bonds

Courses of mixed headers and stretchers

Brickwork in flemish bond.svg Brickwork in monk bond.svg Brickwork in sussex bond.svg
Flemish bond Monk bond Sussex bond

Flemish bond

This bond has one stretcher between headers, with the headers centred over the stretchers in the course below.[28]

Where a course begins with a quoin stretcher, the course will ordinarily terminate with a quoin stretcher at the other end. The next course up will begin with a quoin header. For the course's second brick, a queen closer is laid, generating the lap of the bond. The third brick along is a stretcher, and is—on account of the lap—centred above the header below. This second course then resumes its paired run of stretcher and header, until the final pair is reached, whereupon a second and final queen closer is inserted as the penultimate brick, mirroring the arrangement at the beginning of the course, and duly closing the bond.

Some examples of Flemish bond incorporate stretchers of one colour and headers of another. This effect is commonly a product of treating the header face of the heading bricks while the bricks are being baked as part of the manufacturing process. Some of the header faces are exposed to wood smoke, generating a grey-blue colour, while other simply vitrified until they reach a deeper blue colour. Some headers have a glazed face, caused by using salt in the firing. Sometimes Staffordshire Blue bricks are used for the heading bricks.[29][30]

Brickwork that appears as Flemish bond from both the front and the rear is Double Flemish bond, so called on account of the front and rear duplication of the pattern. If the wall is arranged such that the bricks at the rear do not have this pattern, then the brickwork is said to be Single Flemish bond.[31]

Flemish bond brickwork with a thickness of one brick is the repeating pattern of a stretcher laid immediately to the rear of the face stretcher, and then next along the course, a header. A lap is generated by a queen closer on every alternate course:

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Double Flemish bond of one brick's thickness

Brickwork dbl flem 1 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

A simple way to add some width to the wall would be to add stretching bricks at the rear, making a Single Flemish bond one and a half bricks thick:

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Single Flemish bond of one and a half bricks' thickness

Brickwork sgl flem 1.5 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

For a Double Flemish bond of one and a half bricks' thickness, facing bricks and the bricks behind the facing bricks may be laid in groups of four bricks and a half-bat. The half-bat sits at the centre of the group and the four bricks are placed about the half-bat, in a square formation. These groups are laid next to each other for the length of a course, making brickwork one and a half bricks thick.[32][33]

To preserve the bond, it is necessary to lay a three-quarter bat instead of a header following a quoin stretcher at the corner of the wall. This fact has no bearing on the appearance of the wall; the choice of brick appears to the spectator like any ordinary header:

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Double Flemish bond of one and a half bricks' thickness

Brickwork dbl flem 1.5 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

For a more substantial wall, a header may be laid directly behind the face header, a further two headers laid at 90° behind the face stretcher, and then finally a stretcher laid to the rear of these two headers. This pattern generates brickwork a full two bricks thick:

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Double Flemish bond of two bricks' thickness

Brickwork dbl flem 2 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Double Flemish bond of two and a half bricks' thickness

Brickwork dbl flem 2.5 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

For a still more substantial wall, two headers may be laid directly behind the face header, a further two pairs of headers laid at 90° behind the face stretcher, and then finally a stretcher laid to the rear of these four headers. This pattern generates brickwork a full three bricks thick:

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Double Flemish bond of three bricks' thickness

Brickwork dbl flem 3 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

Monk bond

Monk bond variations
New Malden Library, Kingston upon Thames, Greater London.
New Malden Library, Kingston upon Thames, Greater London.
Private building, Solna, Sweden.
Private building, Solna, Sweden.
Pyramids highlighted.
Pyramids highlighted.

This bond has two stretchers between every header with the headers centred over the perpend between the two stretchers in the course below in the bond's most symmetric form.[34]

The great variety of Monk bond patterns allow for many possible layouts at the quoins, and many possible arrangements for generating a lap. A quoin brick may be a stretcher, a three-quarter bat, or a header. Queen closers may be used next to the quoins, but the practice is not mandatory.

Raking Monk bonds

Monk bond may however take any of a number of arrangements for course staggering. The disposal of bricks in these often highly irregular raking patterns can be a challenging task for the bricklayer to correctly maintain while constructing a wall whose courses are partially obscured by scaffold, and interrupted by door or window openings, or other bond-disrupting obstacles. If the bricklayer frequently stops to check that bricks are correctly arranged, then masonry in a raking Monk bond can be expensive to build.[35]

Occasionally, brickwork in such a raking Monk bond may contain minor errors of header and stretcher alignment some of which may have been silently corrected by incorporating a compensating irregularity into the brickwork in a course further up the wall. In spite of these complexities and their associated costs, the bond has proven a common choice for constructing brickwork in the north of Europe.

Raking courses in Monk bond may—for instance—be staggered in such a way as to generate the appearance of diagonal lines of stretchers. One method of achieving this effect relies on the use of a repeating sequence of courses with back-and-forth header staggering. In this grouping, a header appears at a given point in the group's first course. In the next course up, a header is offset one and a half stretcher lengths to the left of the header in the course below, and then in the third course, a header is offset one stretcher length to the right of the header in the middle course. This accented swing of headers, one and a half to the left, and one to the right, generates the appearance of lines of stretchers running from the upper left hand side of the wall down to the lower right. Such an example of a raking Monk bond layout is shown in the New Malden Library, Kingston upon Thames, Greater London.

Elsewhere, raking courses in Monk bond may be staggered in such a way as to generate a subtle appearance of indented pyramid-like diagonals. Such an arrangement appears in the picture here from the building in Solna, Sweden.

Many other particular adjustments of course alignment exist in Monk bond, generating a variety of visual effects which differ in detail, but often having the effect of directing a viewing eye diagonally down the wall.[36]

Overhead plan for alternate courses of Monk bond of one brick's thickness

Brickwork monk 1 thickness.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

Sussex bond

This bond has three stretchers between every header, with the headers centred above the midpoint of three stretchers in the course below.[37]

The bond's horizontally extended proportion suits long stretches of masonry such as garden walls or the run of brickwork over a ribbon window; conversely, the bond is less suitable for a surface occupied by many features, such as a Georgian façade. The relatively infrequent use of headers serves to make Sussex bond one of the less expensive bonds in which to build a wall, as it allows for the bricklayer to proceed rapidly with run after run of three stretchers at a time.[38]

One stretching course per heading course

  • English bond

  • English Cross bond

  • Double English Cross bond

One of the two kinds of course in this family of bonds is called a stretching course, and this typically comprises nothing but stretchers at the face from quoin to quoin. The other kind of course is the heading course, and this usually consists of headers, with two queen closers—one by the quoin header at either end—to generate the bond.[39]

English bond

This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Queen closers appear as the second brick, and the penultimate brick in heading courses.[40][41] A muted colour scheme for occasional headers is sometimes used in English bond to lend a subtle texture to the brickwork. Examples of such schemes include blue-grey headers among otherwise red bricks—seen in the south of England—and light brown headers in a dark brown wall, more often found in parts of the north of England.[42]

Overhead plan for alternate courses of English bond of one brick's thickness

Brickwork eng 1 th.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of English bond of one and a half bricks' thickness

Brickwork eng 1.5 th.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of English bond of two bricks' thickness

Brickwork eng 2 th.svg
The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east-west wall. An elevation for this east-west wall is shown to the right.

English Cross bond

Dutch Bond, Linacre College, Oxford.

This bond also has alternating stretching and heading courses. However, whilst the heading courses are identical with those found in the standard English bond, the stretching courses alternate between a course composed entirely of stretchers, and a course composed of stretchers half off-set relative to the stretchers two courses above or below, by reason of a header placed just before the quoins at either end.[43][44] The bond is widely found in Northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands.[45]

Large areas of English Cross bond can appear to have a twill like characteristic, an effect caused by the unbroken series of perpends moving diagonally down the bond.

Dutch bond

This bond is exactly like English Cross bond except in the generating of the lap at the quoins. In Dutch bond, all quoins are three-quarter bats—placed in alternately stretching and heading orientation with successive courses—and no use whatever is made of queen closers.[46]

Two or more stretching course per heading course

  • A raking English Garden Wall bond

  • Scottish bond

  • American bond

English Garden Wall bond

This bond has three courses of stretchers between every course of headers.[47]

For the standard English Garden Wall bond, headers are used as quoins for the middle stretching course in order to generate the lap, with queen closers as the penultimate brick at either end of the heading courses. A more complex set of quoins and queen closers is necessary to achieve the lap for a raking English Garden Wall bond.

The heading course in English Garden Wall bond sometimes features bricks of a different colour to its surrounding stretchers. In English chalk districts, flint is substituted for the stretchers, and the headers constitute a lacing course.[42]

Scottish bond

This bond has five courses of stretchers between every course of headers.

The lap is generated by the use of headers as quoins for the even numbered stretching courses, counting up from the previous heading course, with queen closers as the penultimate brick at either end of the heading courses.

American, or common bond

American bond, 5th Ave, Harlem, New York

This bond may have between three and nine courses of stretchers between each course of headers.

Headers are used as quoins for the even numbered stretching courses, counting up from the previous heading course, in order to achieve the necessary off-set in a standard American bond, with queen closers as the penultimate brick at either end of the heading courses.

The brick Clarke-Palmore House in Henrico County, Virginia, has a lower level built in 1819 described as being American bond of three to five stretching courses between each heading course, and an upper level built in 1855 with American bond of six to seven stretching courses between each heading course.[48]

Only stretching or heading courses

  • Header bond

  • Stretcher bond

  • A raking Stretcher bond

Header bond

All bricks in this bond are headers, but for the lap-generating quoin three-quarter bat which offsets each successive course by half a header.

Header bond is often used on curving walls with a small radius of curvature. In Lewes, Sussex, England UK many small buildings are constructed in this bond, using blue coloured bricks and vitrified surfaces.[49][50]

Stretcher, or running bond

All bricks in this bond are stretchers, with the bricks in each successive course staggered by half a stretcher. Headers are used as quoins on alternating stretching courses in order to achieve the necessary off-set.

It is the simplest repeating pattern, and will create a wall only one-half brick thick. Such a thin wall is not stable enough to stand alone, and must be tied to a supporting structure. This practice is common in modern buildings, where stretcher bonded brickwork may be the outer face of a cavity wall, or the facing to a timber or steel-framed structure.[51]

Raking stretcher bond

Also consists entirely of courses of stretchers, but with the bricks in each successive course staggered in some pattern other than that of standard stretcher bond.[52]

One or more stretching courses per alternating course

Flemish Stretcher bond

  • Flemish Stretcher bond

Flemish Stretcher bond separates courses of alternately laid stretchers and headers, with a number of courses of stretchers alone. Brickwork in this bond may have between one and four courses of stretchers to one course after the Flemish manner.[34][53] The courses of stretchers are often but not always staggered in a raking pattern.

Courses of mixed rowlocks and shiners

  • Rat-trap bond

Rat-trap bond

Brick wall laid in rat-trap bond photographed near Angelsea Road, Wivenhoe, Essex, England.

Rat-trap bond substantially observes the same pattern as Flemish bond, but consists of rowlocks and shiners instead of headers and stretchers. This gives a wall with an internal cavity bridged by the rowlocks, hence the reference to rat-traps.[54]

One shiner course per heading course

Dearne's Bond

Dearne's bond substantially observes the same pattern as English bond, but uses shiners in place of stretchers.[55]

Non-load-bearing bonds

Courses of mixed shiners and sailors

  • Single Basket Weave bond

  • Double Basket Weave bond

  • 90° Herringbone bond

  • 45° Herringbone bond

Single Basket Weave bond

45° Herringbone bond, Canterbury, UK

A row of Single Basket Weave bond comprises pairs of sailors laid side-by-side, capped with a shiner, alternating with pairs of sailors laid side-by-side sat atop a shiner. Subsequent rows are identical and aligned with those above.[56]

Double Basket Weave bond

A row of Double Basket Weave bond comprises pairs of shiners laid atop one another, alternating with pairs of sailors laid side-by-side. The following row is off-set so the pair of shiners sits below the pair of sailors in the row above. This results in bricks arranged in pairs in a square grid so that the join between each pair is perpendicular to the join of the four pairs around it.[52]

Herringbone bond

The Herringbone pattern is made by placing a sailor to one side of a shiner making an 'L' shape, then repeatedly nesting further such combinations. The whole tessellation can be rotated by 45°. Herringbone is sometimes used as infill in timber framed buildings.[52][dead link]

Brickwork built around square fractional-sized bricks

  • Pinwheel bond

  • Della Robbia bond

Pinwheel bond

Pinwheel bond is made of four bricks surrounding a square half-brick, repeated in a square grid.[52]

Della Robbia bond

A pattern made of four bricks surrounding a square brick, one-quarter the size of a half-brick. It is designed to resemble woven cloth.[52] Another, similar pattern is called the interlacing bond.[57]

Diapering

Flemish Diagonal Bond, St John's College, Cambridge

  • Flemish Diagonal bond

Brickwork formed into a diamond pattern is called diapering.

Flemish Diagonal bond

Flemish diagonal bond comprises a complex pattern of stretcher courses alternating with courses of one or two stretchers between headers, at various offsets such that over ten courses a diamond-shaped pattern appears.

Damp-proof courses

Moisture may ascend into a building from the foundation of a wall or gain ingress into a building from a wet patch of ground, where it meets a solid wall. The manifest result of this process is called damp. One of many methods of resisting such ingresses of water is to construct the wall with several low courses of dense engineering bricks such as Staffordshire blue bricks. This method of damp proofing appears as a distinctive navy blue band running around the circumference of a building. The efficacy of this means of keeping out damp is more limited by the permeability of the mortar bedding and perpends joining the bricks, than by that of the bricks themselves.[58]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Joseph Moxon. Mechanick Exercises: Or, The Doctrine of Handy-Works. Applied to the Arts of Smithing, Joinery, Carpentry, Turning, Bricklayery. Printed for Daniel Midwinter and Thomas Leigh. 1703. London. Page 129. "Three or four or five course of Bricks to be laid."
  2. ↑ Nicholson. "By a Course, in walling, is meant the bricks contained between two planes parallel to the horizon, and terminated by the faces of the wall. The thickness is that of one brick with mortar. The mass formed by bricks laid in concentric order, for arches or vaults, is also denominated a Course."
  3. ↑ Nicholson, p. 166. "BED.—The under-surface of bricks when laid in any kind of work."
  4. ↑ Reports of artisans selected by a committee appointed by the council of the Society of Arts to visit the Paris Universal exhibition, 1867. Published for the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. Published by Bell and Daldy, York Street, Covent Garden, London. Printed by W. Trounce, Cursitor Street, Chancery Lane, London. 1867. Part 1. Bricklaying by George Howell. Page 194. "The beauty of brickwork will very much depend upon the 'perpends' being perfectly kept, that is, the prefect regularity of the perpendicular joints right up the building."
  5. ↑ Brunskill, p. 39. "British Standard 3921 of 1969, gave dimensions of 215 mm by 102.5 mm by 65 mm [...]."
  6. ↑ British Standards Institution. Specification for Masonry Units. Part 1: Clay Masonry Units. BSI, London, 2003, BS EN 771.
  7. ↑ The Compressive Strength of Modern Earth Masonry, Andrew Heath, Mike Lawrence, Peter Walker and Clyde Fourie. BRE Centre for Innovative Construction Materials, University of Bath and Natural Building Technologies (NBT). Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Non-conventional Materials and Technologies (NOCMAT 2009). 6–9 September 2009, Bath, UK. "All earth masonry units were intended to be 'standard' brick size (215x102.5x65mm) if they were fired, but because they did not have additional shrinkage from firing, the average size was 223x106x67mm."
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 John Houghton. A Collection for Improvement of Husbandry and Trade. 1693. Issue 74. Published by Randal Taylor near Stationers-Hall. London. "A Brick-wall of a Foot and half thick is commonly made by Stretchers and Headers, that is, by laying on the out-side one Brick, so as to have the narrowest side of it to be seen longways, and the next to have only the end seen, and the Brick lying on the broad side, and so on, a Stretcher and a Header."
  9. ↑ Whitney Clark Huntington. Building Construction. Types of Construction, Materials, and Cost Estimating. New York: Wiley. London: Chapman & Hall. 1929. Page 130. "Belt courses and flat arches may be formed of brick[s] set on end with the narrow side exposed. Such bricks are called soldiers."
  10. ↑ Sovinski, p. 43. "Those brick positions oriented in a horizontal alignment are called stretcher, header, rowlock stretcher, and rowlock. A rowlock stretcher is sometimes called a shiner. The two corresponding vertical orientations are the soldier and sailor positions."
  11. ↑ Samuel Y. Harris. Building Pathology. Wiley. New York. 2001. Page 212. "The short face, or the end laid horizontally, is a header; laid vertically, a rowlock."
  12. ↑ Sovinski, p. 43. "Those brick positions oriented in a horizontal alignment are called stretcher, header, rowlock stretcher, and rowlock. A rowlock stretcher is sometimes called a shiner."
  13. ↑ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1. First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 High Holborn. 1889. Page 22.
  14. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. BRICKWORK. "[...] portions of a brick [...] a half header in width, [...] are called queen closers[.]"
  15. ↑ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1. First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 High Holborn. 1889. Page 18. "King Closers are bricks cut so that one end is half the width of a brick, and [are] used in positions where the greater width at back would add strength to the bond[...]."
  16. ↑ Nicholson, p. 167. "[...] an arrangement, or combination of bricks when laid upon each other, [such] that the perpendicular joint formed by any two adjacent bricks may, at all times, be covered by the centre (or nearly so) of one laid immediately over the joint, by which means the nearest approximation to solidity will be attained that such materials are capable of producing."
  17. ↑ Nicholson, p. 347. "BRICKS ARE LAID in a varied, but regular, form of connection, or Bond, as exhibited in Plate LXXXV."
  18. ↑ Nicholson, p. 329. "BOND.—That regular connection, in lapping the stones upon one another, when carrying up the work, which forms an inseparable mass of building."
  19. ↑ Denzil Nield. Walls & Wall Facings. Spon, London. 1949. Page 145. "Cavity walls... are being increasingly built with hollow blocks or other material in place of bricks for the internal leaf."
  20. ↑ New Civil Engineer. Oct 3rd, 1991. Thomas Telford Ltd. London. Advertisement. "Single leaf wall with vertical and lateral load."
  21. ↑ Emmitt, p. 7
  22. ↑ Emmitt, pp. 232, 233. "Early cavity walls were constructed with bonding bricks laid across the cavity at internals to tie the two leaves together. [...] Later, iron ties were used to tie the two leaves together."
  23. ↑ David Yeomans. Construction Since 1900: Materials. BT Batsford Ltd, 583 Fulham Road, London, SW6 5BY. 1997. ISBN 0713466847. Page 60. "In 1974, a large section of the outer leaf of a wall of a comprehensive school at Newnham collapsed revealing a complete absence of ties over a considerable area [and] in 1983, a much larger section of a wall at Plymouth Polytechnic collapsed due to corrosion of the cavity ties."
  24. ↑ CITB
    CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY TRAINING BOARD
    Training Workbook
    Setting Out Brickwork
    Positioning Ranging Lines, Gauge, Dry Bonding, Broken Bonding
    WB 272
    Construction Industry Training Board, Bircham Newton, Kings Lynn, Norfolk PE31 6RH. 1994. ISBN 185751095X. Page 35–37. "Wall thickness terms relate to a stretcher dimension of a brick. Wall (A) [pictured] is termed a half brick wall. Wall (B) [pictured] is termed a one brick wall [...]. This wall is a half brick thick wall [...]. This wall is a one brick     thick wall [...]."
  25. ↑ Bricks and Brickwork. Cecil C. Handisyde and Barry A. Haseltine. The Brick Development Association. 19 Grafton Street, London, W1X 3LE. 1974. Page 68. "Old buildings of solid wall construction were accepted as 'waterproof', often when brickwork was only 9 inches thick. Now it is generally agreed that solid walls of less than [one and a half] brick thickness are inadequate. Code of Practice 121 still includes unrendered one brick thick walls as acceptable for sheltered positions but this seems a questionable recommendation. Walling of [one and a half] brick thickness should be satisfactory for sheltered positions and may be adequate for moderate exposure."
  26. ↑ Emmitt, p. 206. "In exposed positions such as high ground and near the coast, a wall 2B thick may be needed to resist penetration to inside faces [...]. In positions of very severe exposure to wind-driven rain, as on high open ground facing the prevailing wind and on the coast facing open sea, it is necessary to protect both solid and cavity walls with an external cladding."
  27. ↑ Fuller, Chicago Tribune, December 7, 1958.
  28. ↑ Smeaton, pp. 29–30. "The two principal methods of bricklaying are severally called English and Flemish bond. [...] Flemish bond consists in placing a header and a stretcher alternately throughout every course."
  29. ↑ Brunskill, pp. 57–58.
  30. ↑ Arch. Review, p. 233.
  31. ↑ Brunskill, p. 91. "SINGLE FLEMISH BOND: gives the appearance of Flemish Bond on the outside face only of a wall more than 9 inches thick. The same appearance on both inner and outer faces is given by DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND."
  32. ↑ Nicholson, p. 102. "[...] the bricks are disposed alike on both sides of the wall, the tail of the headers being placed contiguous to each other, so as to form square spaces in the core of the wall for half-bricks."
  33. ↑ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1. First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 High Holborn. 1889. Page 25, figures 37 & 38.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 The Dictionary of Art. Grove. Volume Four, Biardeau TO Brüggemann. Edited by Jane Turner. Macmillan Publishers Limited. 1996. ISBN 1884446000. Page 769.
  35. ↑ Arch. Review, p. 242. THE BONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton. "An extra cost over Flemish has to be met for labour on Monk bond and its derivatives, because the process is not so straightforward as Flemish, and the bricklayers have to stop and think more frequently."
  36. ↑ Arch. Review, p. 241. THE BONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton. "Monk bond [...] is popular in the North of Europe. Two stretchers are followed by one header in every course, the headers being so disposed that verticality of their axial lines is little apparent, and a striking result is obtained of diagonal lines of stretchers, which look like a series of corbels or cantilevers embedded in the wall."
  37. ↑ Lloyd, p. 440. "FLEMISH GARDEN WALL or SUSSEX BOND. Three stretchers, then one header in every course."
  38. ↑ Arch. Review, p. 241. THE BONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton.
  39. ↑ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1. First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 High Holborn. 1889. Page 23.
  40. ↑ Smeaton, pp. 29–30. "The two principal methods of bricklaying are severally called English and Flemish bond .... English bond consists of alternating courses of headers and stretchers; thus, one course is formed with headers, that is, with bricks crossing the wall; the next with stretchers, that is, with bricks having their length in the same direction as that of the wall[.]"
  41. ↑ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1. First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 High Holborn. 1889. Page 21, figures 28 & 29.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Arch. Review, p. 242. THE BONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lloyd, p. 440. "ENGLISH CROSS BOND. Stretchers breaking joint. The second brick of alternate stretching courses is a header."
  45. ↑ Brunskill, p. 50.
  46. ↑ Charles F.Mitchell. Building Construction. Part 1. First Stage or Elementary Course. Second Edition—Revised. Published by B.T. Batsford, 52 High Holborn. 1889. Page 37.
  47. ↑ Lloyd, p. 440. "ENGLISH GARDEN WALL BOND. Three stretching courses to each heading course."
  48. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. and Accompanying four photos at Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission, undated
  49. ↑ Lloyd, p. 440. "HEADING BOND. All headers except a three-quarters brick at quoin in alternate courses."
  50. ↑ Arch. Review, pp. 242, 245. THE BONDING OF BRICKWORK. P.M. Stratton.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Brunskill, p. 52.
  54. ↑ Brunskill, p. 54.
  55. ↑ Brunskill, p. 87.
  56. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. ↑ Emmitt, p. 154.

Bibliography

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External links

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