Orbital decay

"Decaying Orbit" redirects here. For the 2007 film, see Decaying Orbit (film).

In orbital mechanics, decay is a process that leads to gradual decrease of the distance between two orbiting bodies at their closest approach (the periapsis) over many orbital periods. These orbiting bodies can be a planet and its satellite, a star and any object orbiting it, or components of any binary system. The orbital decay can be caused by a multitude of mechanical, gravitational, and electromagnetic effects. For bodies in a low Earth orbit, the most significant effect is the atmospheric drag.

If left unchecked, the decay eventually results in termination of the orbit where the smaller object strikes the surface of the primary; or for objects where the primary has an atmosphere, it burns, explodes, or otherwise breaks up in its atmosphere; or for objects where the primary is a star, ends with incineration by the star's radiation (such as for comets), and so on.

Collisions and mergers of two stellar-mass objects usually produce cataclysmic effects; see stellar collision and gamma-ray burst.

Causes

Atmospheric drag

Further information: Atmospheric drag

Atmospheric drag at orbital altitude is caused by frequent collisions of gas molecules with the satellite. It is the major cause of orbital decay for satellites in low Earth orbit. It results in the reduction in the altitude of a satellite's orbit. For the case of Earth, atmospheric drag resulting in satellite re-entry can be described by the following sequence:

lower altitude → denser atmosphere → increased drag → increased heat → usually burns on re-entry

Orbital decay thus involves a positive feedback effect, where the more the orbit decays, the lower its altitude drops, and the lower the altitude, the faster the decay. Decay is also particularly sensitive to external factors of the space environment such as solar activity, which are not very predictable. During solar maxima the Earth's atmosphere causes significant drag up to a hundred kilometers higher than during solar minima.

Atmospheric drag exerts a significant effect at the altitudes of space stations, space shuttles and other manned Earth-orbit spacecraft, and satellites with relatively high "low earth orbits" such as the Hubble Space Telescope. Space stations typically require a regular altitude boost to counteract orbital decay (see also orbital station-keeping). Uncontrolled orbital decay brought down the Skylab space station, and (relatively) controlled orbital decay was used to de-orbit the Mir space station.

Regular orbital boosts are also needed by the Hubble Space Telescope, though on a longer time scale, due to its much higher altitude. However, orbital decay is also a limiting factor to the length of time the Hubble can go without a maintenance rendezvous, the most recent performed successfully by STS-125, with space shuttle Atlantis launching May 11, 2009, though newer telescopes are in much higher orbits or in some cases in solar orbit, so orbital boosting may not be needed.

Tidal effects

Further information: Tidal locking

An orbit can also decay by tidal effects when the orbiting body is large enough to raise a significant tidal bulge on the body it is orbiting and is either in a retrograde orbit or is below the synchronous orbit. The resulting tidal interaction saps momentum from the orbiting body and transfers it to the primary's rotation, lowering the orbit's altitude until frictional effects come into play.

Examples of satellites undergoing tidal orbital decay are Mars' moon Phobos, Neptune's moon Triton, and the extrasolar planet TrES-3.

Light and thermal radiation

Main articles: Poynting–Robertson effect and Yarkovsky effect

Small bodies of the Solar System also experience an orbital decay.

Gravitational radiation

Main article: Two-body problem in general relativity

Gravitational radiation is another mechanism of orbital decay. It is negligible for orbits of planets and planetary satellites, but is noticeable for systems of compact objects, as seen in observations of neutron star orbits.

Stellar collision

Further information: Stellar collision

The coming together of two binary stars when they lose energy and approach each other. Several things can cause the loss of energy including tidal forces, mass transfer, and gravitational radiation. The stars describe the path of a spiral as they approach each other. This sometimes results in a merger of the two stars or the creation of a black hole. The last several revolutions of the stars around each other take only a few seconds in the latter case.

Mass concentration

Further information: Mass concentration (astronomy)

While not a direct cause of orbital decay, uneven mass distributions (known as mascons) of the body being orbited can perturb orbits over time, and extreme distributions can cause orbits to be highly unstable. The resulting unstable orbit can mutate into an orbit where one of the direct causes of orbital decay can take place.

References

• Orbital decay calculations, with discussion and examples