Defense of infancy

The defense of infancy is a form of defense known as an excuse so that defendants falling within the definition of an "infant" are excluded from criminal liability for their actions, if at the relevant time, they had not reached an age of criminal responsibility. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and the type of offense committed.

Under the English common law the defense of infancy was expressed as a set of presumptions. A child under the age of seven was presumed incapable of committing a crime. The presumption was conclusive, prohibiting the prosecution from offering evidence that the child had the capacity to appreciate the nature and wrongfulness of what he had done. Children aged seven to fourteen (13 years, 364 days 23'59'59" aged) were presumed incapable of committing a crime but the presumption was rebuttable. The prosecution could overcome the presumption by proving that the child understood what he was doing and that it was wrong. Children fourteen and older were presumed capable of committing a crime. However, the child could rebut this presumption by establishing that because of his immaturity he was incapable of understanding what he had done or the wrongfulness of his conduct.

The age of criminal responsibility

Governments enact laws to label certain types of activity as wrongful or illegal. Behaviour of a more antisocial nature can be stigmatized in a more positive way to show society's disapproval through the use of the word criminal. In this context, laws tend to use the phrase, "age of criminal responsibility" in two different ways:

1. As a definition of the process for dealing with an alleged offender, the range of ages specifies the exemption of a child from the adult system of prosecution and punishment. Most states develop special juvenile justice systems in parallel to the adult criminal justice system. Here, the hearings are essentially welfare-based and deal with children as in need of compulsory measures of treatment and/or care. Children are diverted into this system when they have committed what would have been an offense as an adult.
2. As the physical capacity of a child to commit a crime. Hence, children are deemed incapable of committing some sexual or other acts requiring abilities of a more mature quality.

Thus, each state is considering whether any given child has committed an offense, and given that answer, what the most appropriate measures would be for dealing with a child who has done what this child did. It is noted that, in some states, a link is made between infancy as a defense and defenses that diminish responsibility on the ground of a mental illness. Distinctions between children, young offenders, juveniles, etc. are used to denote matching levels of incapacity. The majority view is that this linkage is not constructive in that it implies that children are in some way mentally defective whereas they merely lack the judgment that comes with age and experience.

Discussion

This is an aspect of the public policy of parens patriae. In the criminal law, each state will consider the nature of its own society and the available evidence of the age at which antisocial behaviour begins to manifest itself. Some societies will have qualities of indulgence toward the young and inexperienced, and will not wish them to be exposed to the criminal law system before all other avenues of response have been exhausted. Hence, some states have a policy of doli incapax (i.e. incapable of wrong) and exclude liability for all acts and omissions that would otherwise have been criminal up to a specified age. Hence, no matter what the infant may have done, there cannot be a criminal prosecution. However, although no criminal liability is inferred, other aspects of law may be applied. For example, in Nordic countries, an offense by a person under 15 years of age is considered mostly a symptom of problems in child's development. This will cause the social authorities to take appropriate administrative measures to secure the development of the child. Such measures may range from counseling to placement at special care unit. Being non-judicial, the measures are not dependent on the severity of the offense committed but on the overall circumstances of the child.

The policy of treating minors as incapable of committing crimes does not necessarily reflect modern sensibilities. Thus, if the rationale of the excuse is that children below a certain age lack the capacity to form the mens rea of an offense, this may no longer be a sustainable argument. Indeed, given the different speeds at which people may develop both physically and intellectually, any form of explicit age limit may be arbitrary and irrational. Yet, the sense that children do not deserve to be exposed to criminal punishment in the same way as adults remains strong. Children have not had experience of life, nor do they have the same mental and intellectual capacities as adults. Hence, it might be considered unfair to treat young children in the same way as adults.

In Scotland the age of criminal responsibility is twelve years. In England and Wales and Northern Ireland the age of responsibility is ten years and in the Netherlands and Canada, the age of responsibility is twelve years. Sweden, Finland, and Norway all set the age at fifteen years. In the United States, the age varies between states, being as low as six years in South Carolina and seven years in 35 states; 11 years is the minimum age for federal crimes.

As the treaty parties of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court could not agree on a minimum age for criminal responsibility, they chose to solve the question procedurally and excluded the jurisdiction of the Court for persons under eighteen years.

Some countries refuse to set a fixed minimum age, but leave discretion to prosecutors to argue or the judges to rule on whether the child or adolescent ("juvenile") defendant understood that what was being done was wrong. If the defendant did not understand the difference between right and wrong, it may not be considered appropriate to treat such a person as culpable. Alternatively, the lack of real fault in the offender can be recognized by rulings that dispense mitigated criminal sentences or address more practical matters of parental responsibility by adjusting the rights of parents to unsupervised custody, or by separate criminal proceedings against the parents for breach of their duties as parents.

Ages of criminal responsibility by country

The following are the minimum ages at which people may be charged with a criminal offence in each country:

Country	Age	Reference	Notes
United States	7000600000000000000♠ 6-12		Age determined by each state; the minimum age is 6 (North Carolina); however, only 15 states have set minimum ages, which range from 6 to 12 years. States without statutory minimum ages rely on common law, which means that 7 is the minimum age in most states; for federal crimes the age has been set at 11.
India	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Myanmar	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Nigeria	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Pakistan	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Singapore	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Sudan	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Tanzania	7000700000000000000♠ 7
Antigua and Barbuda	7000800000000000000♠ 8		According to Articles 1 and 3 of the Juvenile Act, Courts must have regard to the welfare of those under 16.
Indonesia	7000800000000000000♠ 8
Kenya	7000800000000000000♠ 8
Bangladesh	7000900000000000000♠ 9
Ethiopia	7000900000000000000♠ 9
Iran	7000900000000000000♠ 9 (girls); 15 (boys)
Australia	7001100000000000000♠ 10		Age of criminal responsibility in Australia. Rebuttable presumption of incapacity of committing crime: under 14.
Hong Kong	7001100000000000000♠ 10
Malaysia	7001100000000000000♠ 10		Malaysia has a dual system of secular and Islamic law, which has resulted in a number of different minimum ages of responsibility depending on which branch of the law is applicable. Under the Penal Code, a person can be held criminally responsible from the age of 10. [Penal Code, Article 82. See also Child Act Article 2] Under the Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997, Muslim children can be held criminally responsible from the onset of puberty. [Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997, Articles 2 and 51] Offences under the Internal Security Act can be prosecuted regardless of age. [Essential (Security Cases) Regulations 1975, Article 3]
Nepal	7001100000000000000♠ 10
New Zealand	7001100000000000000♠ 10		Rebuttable presumption of incapacity until age 14. Children aged 10 and 11 can only be convicted of murder or manslaughter; children aged 12 and 13 can only be convicted of crimes with a maximum imprisonment of 14 years or more. See Youth justice in New Zealand.
South Africa	7001100000000000000♠ 10		The Child Justice Act 75 of 2008 came into effect 1 April 2010. There is a rebuttable presumption that a child between the ages of 10 and 14 lacks criminal capacity.
Switzerland	7001100000000000000♠ 10
Thailand	7001100000000000000♠ 10
United Kingdom (excluding Scotland)	7001100000000000000♠ 10		10 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; 12 in Scotland. Although the age of criminal responsibility in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is 10, usually persons aged 10–11 will only be imprisoned in very serious cases, such as murder. Even more so the outcome for youth (12-17) criminal proceedings are usually age categorised (currently it will depend on whether the offender is under 12, under 14, under 16 or under 18, with the older the offender the more severity of punishment, especially for serious crimes). Currently Persons aged 10–17 are usually dealt with differently under UK law as "juveniles" and in most criminal cases, attend a Youth Court, supposed to an adult Magistrate Court (for minor offences, such as petty shoplifting/theft, common assault, etc.) or Crown Court (for serious offences, such as murder, rape, robbery, etc.). By the current way UK law and courts work, it would be very rare that a person under 15 would get a custodial sentence for a minor offence, and it would be almost non existent for a person under 12 to get a custodial sentence for a minor offence, unless they are a "constant offender" and are regarded a danger to the public. In serious criminal cases such as murder, rape, etc. a person under 18 will be dealt with by the law and courts in the same way as a person 18 or over, most probably in a Crown Court.
Afghanistan	7001120000000000000♠ 12		According to Articles 12 and 45 of the Juvenile Code, children aged 7–12 can be subject to warnings, supervision by social services, or confinement to a rehabilitation centre.
Andorra	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Canada	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Costa Rica	7001120000000000000♠ 12		Even though legal procedures and punishment are different for offenders who are under 18, all offenders who are 12 or older may be sentenced to as much as 15 years of incarceration
Hungary	7001120000000000000♠ 12		12 only for premeditated homicide, voluntary manslaughter and bodily harm leading to death or resulting in life-threatening injuries; 14 for other crimes.
Ireland	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Israel	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Morocco	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Netherlands	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Scotland (UK)	7001120000000000000♠ 12		If a compulsory intervention is considered necessary, a child aged between 8 and 12 years may be dealt with through the Children's Hearings system.
Turkey	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Uganda	7001120000000000000♠ 12
Algeria	7001130000000000000♠ 13		Children aged 13–18 are subject to attenuated penalties.
France	7001130000000000000♠ 13
Albania	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Article 1 of the Code distinguishes between offences and contraventions. Article 12 mandates that the latter (which are less serious) have a higher age limit of 16.
Armenia	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Angola	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Minimum and maximum sentences are reduced by two thirds between 14 and 16, and half between 16 and 18. The needs of rehabilitation and social reintegration are also to be taken into account for under 18s.
Austria	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Azerbaijan	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Bolivia	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Lowered in July 2014, from 16 to 14
China	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Absolute minimum for acts that constitute the following crimes: homicide, wounding resulting in death, rape, robbery, arson, explosion, planting of toxic substances and trafficking in dangerous drugs. The minimum age for other crimes are 16. In Hong Kong, the minimum age is 10 and in Macau, 16.
Croatia	7001140000000000000♠ 14		14 for all crimes under the general provisions of the Criminal Code; special provisions may apply for some crimes up to the age 21.
Estonia	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Germany	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Minors between 14 and 18 years are sentenced by juvenile justice. An adult between 18 and 21 years may still be sentenced by juvenile justice if considered mentally immature.
Italy	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Juvenile judiciary system for offenders aged between 14 and 18; separate juvenile jails. Full criminal responsibility from age 18.
Japan	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Paraguay	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Offenders between 14 and 17 can be sentenced to a maximum of 8 years of imprisonment.
Romania	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Russia	7001140000000000000♠ 14		16 by default, 14 years specifically for crimes as listed in Section 20 of the Criminal code, like murder, rape, robbery, extortion, kidnapping, motor vehicle theft, terror attack, stealing restricted substances like explosives or narcotics, aggravated anti-social behaviour, vandalism, false report of a terror attack.
Slovenia	7001140000000000000♠ 14
South Korea	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Spain	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Taiwan	7001140000000000000♠ 14		Offenders aged 14 to 18 years qualify for reduction of sentence under section 18 of the Criminal Code. The death penalty and imprisonment without term cannot be applied to offenders aged 14 to 18 years.
Ukraine	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Vietnam	7001140000000000000♠ 14
Czech Republic	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Denmark	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Egypt	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Finland	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Iceland	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Norway	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Philippines	7001150000000000000♠ 15		A person who is fifteen years old or younger at the time of the offense shall be exempt from criminal liability. However, the minor shall be subjected to an intervention program. A person who is older than fifteen but younger than eighteen years shall likewise be exempt from criminal liability and be subjected to an intervention program, unless he/she has acted with discernment. Discernment means the mental capacity to understand the difference between right and wrong and its consequences.
Poland	7001170000000000000♠ 15-18		17 is the standard age of criminal liability in Poland. Minors from the age of 15 can be tried as adults if so decided by the Supreme Court, which can decide so only in relation to especially heinous crimes when "the circumstances of the case and the mental state of development of the perpetrator, his characteristics and personal situation warrant it, and especially when previously applied educational or corrective measures have proved ineffective." On the other hand, the Court may choose to apply juvenile measures for perpetrators between the age under 18, if "the circumstances of the case and the mental state of development of the perpetrator, his characteristics and personal situation warrant it." Juvenile correctional proceedings liability age is 13. Juvenile educational and therapeutic proceedings liability applies to all persons under the age of 18 (including persons below 13 years of age).
Sweden	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Uzbekistan	7001150000000000000♠ 15
Argentina	7001160000000000000♠ 16
Belgium	7001160000000000000♠ 16
Chile	7001160000000000000♠ 16
DR Congo	7001160000000000000♠ 16
Portugal	7001160000000000000♠ 16
Brazil	7001180000000000000♠ 18
Colombia	7001180000000000000♠ 18
Ecuador	7001180000000000000♠ 18
Mexico	7001180000000000000♠ 18
Peru	7001180000000000000♠ 18
Uruguay	7001180000000000000♠ 18

Child imprisonment

Child imprisonment is a concept in criminal law where people are considered not old enough to be held responsible for their criminal acts. The main problem in most countries is whether children should be punished as an adult for crimes committed as a juvenile, or if special treatment is a better solution for the offender.

Juvenile courts

In some countries, a juvenile court is a court of special jurisdiction charged with adjudicating cases involving crimes committed by those who have not yet reached a specific age. If convicted in a juvenile court, the offender is found "responsible" for their actions as opposed to "guilty" for a criminal offense. Sometimes, in some jurisdictions (such as the United States) a minor may be tried as an adult.

See also

• Reasonable person

References

Further reading

• Maher, Gerry. "Age and Criminal Responsibility. 2005 Vol 2. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law. 493 [3]
• CRC Country Reports (1992–1996); Juvenile Justice and Juvenile Delinquency in Central and Eastern Europe, 1995; United Nations, Implementation of UN Mandates on Juvenile Justice in ESCAP, 1994; Geert Cappelaere, Children's Rights Centre, University of Gent, Belgium.
• http://www.unicef.org/pon97/p56a.htm