Indian massacre

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Not to be confused with Massacres in India.
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In the history of the European colonization of North America, an atrocity termed "Indian massacre" is a specific incident wherein a group of people (military, mob or other) deliberately kill a significant number of relatively defenseless or innocent people—usually civilian noncombatants or to the summary execution of prisoners-of-war. The term pertains to the killings of people of European descent by indigenous people of the North American continent (Indians) or killings of indigenous people by people of European descent and/or other indigenous people.

Overview

It is difficult to determine the total number of people who died as a result of Indian massacres. However, one book, The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee presents an estimate by counting every recorded atrocity in the area that would eventually become the continental United States, from first contact (1511) to the closing of the frontier (1890). The parameters were limited to the intentional and indiscriminate murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and prisoners. The results revealed that 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by those of European descent, and 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans.[1]

List of massacres

This is a listing of some of the events reported then or referred to now as "Indian massacre".

Pre-Columbian era

Year Date Name Description Claimants
1325 Crow Creek massacre 486 known dead near Chamberlain, South Dakota, at an archaeological site and a U.S. National Historic Landmark number 66000710 was an internal Native American eradication. [2]

1500–1830

Year Date Name Description Claimants
1539 Napituca Massacre After defeating resisting Timucuan warriors, Hernando de Soto had 200 executed, in the first large-scale massacre by Europeans on what became American soil. [3]
1540 October 18 Mabila Massacre The Choctaw retaliated against Hernando de Soto's expedition,[4] killing 200 soldiers, as well as many of their horses and pigs, for their having burned down Mabila compound and killed c. 2,500 warriors who had hidden in houses of a fake village. [3][5][6]
1541–42 Tiguex Massacres After the invading Spaniards seized the houses, food and clothing of the Tiguex, and raped their women, the Tiguex resisted. The Spanish attacked them, burning at the stake 50 people who had surrendered. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's men laid siege to the Moho Pueblo, and after a months-long siege, they killed 200 fleeing warriors. [7][8]
1599 January 22–24 Acoma Massacre In retaliation for the killing of 11 Spanish soldiers, Juan de Oñate led a punitive expedition against the natives in a three-day battle at the Acoma Pueblo, killing approximately 800. King Philip III later punished Oñate for his excesses. [9][10]
1601 Sandia Mountains Spanish troops destroyed 3 Indian villages in the Sandia Mountains, New Mexico. According to Spanish sources, 900 Tompiro Indians were killed. [11]
1622 March 22 Jamestown Massacre Powhatan (Pamunkey) killed 347 English men, women and children throughout the Virginia colony, almost one-third of the English population of the Jamestown colony, in an effort to push the English out of Virginia. [12]
1623 May 12 Pamunkey Peace Talks The English poisoned the wine at a "peace conference" with Powhatan leaders, killing about 200; they physically attacked and killed another 50. [6]
1637 April 23 Wethersfield Attack During the Pequot War, Wongunk chief Sequin attacked the Puritan town Wethersfield, Connecticut with Pequot help. About 30 settlers were killed, including women and children. [13]
1637 May 26 Mystic Massacre In the Pequot War, English colonists commanded by John Mason, with Mohegan and Narragansett allies, launched a night attack on a large Pequot village on the Mystic River in present-day Connecticut, where they burned the inhabitants in their homes and killed all survivors, for total fatalities of about 600–700. [14]
1643 February 25 Pavonia Massacre In 1643 the Mohawk attacked a band of Wappinger and Tappan, who fled to New Amsterdam seeking the protection of New Netherland governor, William Kieft. Kieft dispersed them to Pavonia[15] and Corlears Hook. They were later attacked, 129 being killed. This prompted the beginning of Kieft's War, driven by mercenary John Underhill. [16][17][18]
1643 August Hutchinson Massacre As part of Kieft's War in New Netherland, near the Split Rock (now northeastern Bronx in New York City), local Lenape (or Siwanoy) killed Anne Hutchinson, six of her children, a son-in-law, and as many as seven others (servants). Susanna, one of Hutchinson's daughters, was taken captive and lived with the natives for several years. [19]
1644 March Pound Ridge Massacre As part of Kieft's War in New Netherland, at present day Pound Ridge, New York, John Underhill, hired by the Dutch, attacked and burned a sleeping village of Lenape, killing about 500 Indians. [6][20]
1655 September 11–15 Peach Tree War In retaliation for Director-General of New Netherland Peter Stuyvesant's attacks to their trading partners and allies at New Sweden, united bands of natives attacked Pavonia, Staten Island, Colen Donck and other areas of New Netherland. [21]
1675 July Swansea Massacre Wampanoag warriors attack the town of Swansea, Massachusetts, killing 7 settlers. This attack marked the beginning of King Philip's War. [22]
1675 September 18 Bloody Brook Massacre During King Philip's War, Indian warriors ambushed and killed 60 soldiers of Deerfield, Massachusetts. [23]
1675 December 19 Great Swamp Massacre Colonial militia attacked a Narragansett fort near South Kingstown, Rhode Island. At least 40 warriors were killed and 300 women, children and elder men burnt in the village. [24]
1676 March 26 Nine Men's Misery During King Philip's War, warriors subjected nine captive soldiers to ritual torture and death. [25][26]
1676 May 10 Turner Falls Massacre Captain William Turner and 150 militia volunteers attacked a fishing Indian camp at present-day Turners Falls, Massachusetts. At least 100 women and children were killed in the attack. [27]
1676 July 2 Rhode Island Militia volunteers under Major Talcott attacked a band of Narragansetts on Rhode Island, killing 34 men and 92 women and children. [28]
1680 August 10 Pueblo Revolt Pueblo warriors killed 380 Spanish settlers, and drove other Spaniards from New Mexico. [29]
1689 August 5 Lachine massacre 1,500 Mohawk warriors attacked the small settlement of Lachine, New France and killed more than 90 of the village's 375 French residents, following widespread French attacks on Mohawk villages in present-day New York. [30]
1689 Zia Pueblo Governor Jironza de Cruzate destroyed the pueblo of Zia, New Mexico. 600 Indians were killed and 70 survivors enslaved. [31]
1690 February 8 Schenectady Massacre As part of the Beaver Wars, French and Algonquins destroyed Schenectady, New York, killing 60 Dutch and English settlers, including ten women and at least twelve children. [32]
1692 January 24 Candlemas Massacre During King William's War, 200-300 Abenaki and Canadiens killed 75, took 100 prisoner and burned the town of York, Maine district of the Province of Massachusetts Bay [33]
1704 Apalachee Massacre Former Carolina Governor James Moore launched a series of brutal attacks on the Apalachee villages of Northern Florida. They killed 1000 Apalachees and enslaved at least 2000 survivors. [34]
1704 February 29 Deerfield Massacre During Queen Anne's War, a force composed of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian militia, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians and taking more than 100 as captives. [35]
1712 May Fox Indian Massacre French troops and Indian allies slaughtered around 1,000 Fox Indians men, women and children in a five-day massacre near the head of the Detroit River. [36]
1713 March 20–23 Fort Neoheroka Militia volunteers and Indian allies under Colonel James Moore attacked Ft. Neoheroka, the main stronghold of the Tuscarora Indians. 200 Tuscaroras were burned to death in the village and 900–1000 others were subsequently killed or captured. [37][38]
1715 April 15 Pocotaligo Massacre Yamassee Indians killed 4 British traders and representatives of Carolina at Pocotaligo, near present-day Yemassee, South Carolina. 90 other traders were killed in the following weeks. [39]
1724 August 24 Norridgewock Massacre Captains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon led 200 rangers to the Abenaki village of Norridgewock, Maine to kill Father Sebastian Rale and destroy the Indian settlement. The rangers massacred 80 Abenakis (including two dozen women and children). [40]
1729 November 29 Natchez Massacre Natchez Indians attacked French settlements near present-day Natchez, Mississippi, killing more than 200 French colonists. [41]
1730 September 9 Massacre at Fox Fort A French army of 1,400 soldiers and its Indian allies massacred about 500 Fox Indians (including 300 women and children) as they tried to flee their besieged camp. [42]
1747 October Chama River Spanish troops ambushed a group of Utes on the Chama River, killing 111 Indians and taking 206 as captives . [43]
1755 Jul 8 Draper's Meadow massacre 5 settlers killed by Shawnee Indians at Draper's Meadow, Virginia [44]
1757 August 9 Battle of Fort William Henry Following the fall of Fort William Henry during the Seven Years' War, Indians allied with the French killed between 70 and 180 British and colonial prisoners. [45]
1758 March 16 San Saba Mission Massacre A large party of Comanche, Tonkawa and Hasinai Indians attacked the mission of San Saba, Texas, killing 8 people and burning down the mission. [46]
1759 October 4 St. Francis Raid During the Seven Years' War, in retaliation for the rumored murder of a captured Stockbridge man and detention of Captain Quinten Kennedy of the Rogers' Rangers, Major Robert Rogers led a party of approximately 150 English regulars, volunteers and Mahican into the village of Odanak, Quebec. They killed up to 30 Abenaki people, among them women and children, as confirmed via conflicting reports. [47]
1763 May Capture of Fort Sandusky During Pontiac's War, a group of Wyandots entered the British outpost Fort Sandusky under peaceful pretexts. The Wyandots then seized the fort and killed its 15-member garrison along with several British traders. [48]
1763 September 14 Devil's Hole Massacre During the Seven Years' War, Seneca allied with the French attacked a British supply train and soldiers just south of Fort Niagara. They killed 21 teamsters from the supply train and 81 soldiers who attempted to rescue the train. [49]
1763 December Killings by the Paxton Boys In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, frontier Pennsylvania settlers killed 20 peaceful Susquehannock. [50][51][52]
1764 July 26 Enoch Brown school massacre Four Delaware killed a schoolmaster, 10 pupils and a pregnant woman. Two pupils were scalped but survived. [52]
1774 September Spanish Peaks Spanish troops surprised a large fortified Comanche village near Spanish Peaks (Raton, New Mexico). They killed nearly 300 Indians (men, women and children) and took 100 captives. [53]
1774 April 30 Yellow Creek Massacre Daniel Greathouse killed members of Chief Logan's family. [54]
1777 September 26 The Grave Creek Massacre A milita company under Captain William Foreman is ambushed and killed by Indians south of Wheeling, West Virginia. [55]
1778 July 3 Battle of Wyoming During the American Revolutionary War, following a battle with rebel defenders of Forty Fort, Iroquois allies of Loyalist forces hunted and killed those who fled; they were later accused of using ritual torture to kill those soldiers who surrendered. These claims were denied by Iroquois and British leaders at the time. [56][57][58]
1778 August 31 Stockbridge Massacre An ambush by the British during the American Revolutionary War that left nearly 40 natives dead. [59]
1778 November 11 Cherry Valley Massacre British and Seneca forces attacked the fort and village at Cherry Valley, New York, killing 16 rebel troops and more than 30 settlers. [60]
1780 June 27 Westervelt Massacre Seventeen Dutch settlers killed and two taken captive out of a caravan of 41. The settler caravan was traveling between Low Dutch Station, Kentucky and Harrod's Town, Kentucky. The victims were all scalped and sold to the British for a bounty. [61]
1781 September 1 Dietz Massacre During the Revolution, Iroquois allied with the British attacked the home of Johannes Dietz, Berne, New York, killing and scalping Dietz, his wife, their daughter-in-law, four children of their son's family, and a servant girl. [62][63]
1781 September 1 Long Run Massacre Thirty-two settlers killed by 50 Miami people while trying to move to safety, additionally approximately 15 settlers and 17 soldiers were killed attempting to bury the initial victims. [64][65]
1782 March 8 Gnadenhütten massacre During the Revolution, Pennsylvania militiamen massacred nearly 100 non-combatant Christian Lenape, mostly women and children; they killed and scalped all but two young boys. [66][67]
1782 May 10 Corbly Family Massacre During the Revolution, Indians allied with the British attacked the family of John Corbly, a Christian minister in Greene County, Pennsylvania. His wife and three of their children were killed; and two daughters were scalped, but survived. The Reverend Corbly escaped. [68]
1791 January 2 Big Bottom massacre 14 Settlers killed by Indian War Party in Stockport, Morgan County, Ohio
1791 November 4 Fort Recovery Massacre At present day Fort Recovery, Ohio, an army of 1,500 Americans led by Arthur St. Clair, was ambushed by an army of Miami Indians led by chief Little Turtle. Before retreating, 700 of the 1,500 American soldiers were slaughtered. [69]
1805 January Canyon del Muerto Spanish soldiers led by Antonio Narbona massacred 115 Navajo Indians (mostly women, children and old men) in Canyon del Muerto, northeastern Arizona. [70]
1812 August 15 Fort Dearborn Massacre
(Battle of Fort Dearborn)		 During the War of 1812, Indians allied with the British killed American soldiers and settlers evacuating Fort Dearborn (site of present-day Chicago, Illinois). In all, 26 soldiers, two officers, two women and 12 children, and 12 trappers and settlers hired as scouts, were killed. [71]
1812 September 3 Pigeon Roost Massacre During the War of 1812, twenty four settlers, including fifteen children, were massacred by a war party of Native Americans (mostly Shawnee, but possibly including some Delawares and Potawatomis) in a surprise attack on a small village located in what is today Scott County, Indiana. [72]
1812 September 10 Zimmer Massacre During the War of 1812, four settlers were killed in an attack believed to be by aggrieved Lenape, in Ashland County, Ohio. [73]
1812 September 15 Copus Massacre During the War of 1812, Northwest Indians attacked the Ashland County, Ohio homestead of Rev. James Copus, killing three militiamen and one settler; and wounding two militiamen and a settler's daughter; settlers killed two Indians. [74]
1813 January 22 River Raisin Massacre During the War of 1812, Indians allied with the British killed between 30 and 60 Kentucky militia after their surrender. [75]
1813 August 18 Dilbone Massacre During the War of 1812, an Indian allegedly killed three settlers (David Garrard and Henry Dilbone and wife) in Miami County, Ohio. Settlers later killed the Indian they suspected of the murders. [76]
1813 August 30 Fort Mims Massacre After Creek were attacked by US forces in the Battle of Burnt Corn (which the Creek won), a band of Red Sticks sacked Fort Mims, Alabama, killing 400 civilians and taking 250 scalps. This action brought the US into the internal Creek War, at the same time as the War of 1812. [77]
1813 November 18 Hillabee Massacre Tennessee troops under General White launched a dawn attacked on an unsuspecting Creek town (the village leaders were engaged in peace negotiations with General Andrew Jackson). About 65 Creek Indians were shot or bayoneted. [78]
1813 November 29 Autossee Massacre
(Battle of Autossee)		 Georgia Militia General Floyd attacked a Creek town on Tallapoosa River, in Macon County, Alabama, killing 200 Indians before setting the village afire. [79]
1818 April 22 Chehaw Affair During the First Seminole War, U.S. troops attacked a non-hostile Muscogee village, killing an estimated 10 to 50 men, women and children. [80]
1824 March 22 Fall Creek Massacre Six settlers in Madison County, Indiana killed and robbed eight Seneca. One suspect escaped trial and another was a witness at subsequent trial. Of those charged with murder, one man was hanged 12 January 1825, and two were hanged 2 June 1825. The last defendant was pardoned at the last minute. [81]
1826 Dressing Point Massacre A posse of Anglo-Texan settlers massacred a large community of Karankawa Indians near the mouth of the Colorado River in Matagorda County, Texas. Between 40 and 50 Karankawas were killed. [82]

1830–1911

Year Date Name Description Claimants
1832 May 20 Indian Creek Massacre A party of Potawatomi, with a few Sauk allies, killed fifteen men, women and children and kidnapped two young women, who were later ransomed. [83]
1832 May 24 St. Vrain massacre 4 killed by Ho-Chunk while delivering dispatches during Black Hawk War near present-day Pearl City, Illinois during Black Hawk War [84]
1832 June 14 Spafford Farm massacre Five men were attacked by a Kickapoo war party, four whites and one Indian died, during Black Hawk War, near present-day South Wayne, Wisconsin [85]
1832 August 1 Battle of Bad Axe Soldiers under General Henry Atkinson and armed volunteers killed around 150 Indian men, women and children near present-day Victory, Wisconsin. [86]
1833 Exact date unknown Cutthroat Gap Massacre Osage tribe attacked a Kiowa camp west of the Wichita Mountains in southwest Oklahoma where one hundred and fifty Kiowa tribal inhabitants were brutally slaughtered in the Osage attack. [87]
1835 December 28 Dade Massacre During the Second Seminole War, Seminole killed almost all of a command of 110 American soldiers in Central Florida. All but two of the soldiers were killed; and one survivor died a few months later from his wounds. [88][89]
1836 May 19 Fort Parker Massacre Comanche killed seven European Americans in Limestone County, Texas. The five captured included Cynthia Ann Parker. [90]
1837 April 22 Johnson Massacre At least 20 Apaches were killed near Santa Rita del Cobre, New Mexico while trading with a group of American settlers led by John Johnson. The Anglos blasted the Apaches with a canon loaded with musket balls, nails and pieces of glass and finished off the wounded. [91]
1838 October 5 Killough Massacre Indians massacred eighteen members and relatives of the Killough family in Texas. [92]
1838 or 1839 Exact date unknown Webster Massacre Comanche killed a party of settlers attempting to ford the Bushy Creek near present-day Leander, Texas. All of the Anglo men were killed and Mrs. Webster and her two children were captured. [93]
1840 March 19 Council House Massacre The 12 leaders of a Comanche delegation (65 people including 35 women and children) were shot in San Antonio, Texas, while trying to escape the local jail. 23 others including 5 women and children were killed in or around the city. [94]
1840 August 7 Indian Key Massacre During the Seminole Wars, Spanish-speaking Indians attacked and destroyed an Indian Key settlement, killing 13 inhabitants, including noted horticulturist Dr. Henry Perrine. [95]
1840 October 24 Colorado River Volunteer Rangers under Colonel Moore massacred 140 Comanches (men, women and children) in their village on the Colorado and captured 35 others (mostly small children). [96]
1840 Exact date unknown Clear Lake Massacre A posse led by Mexican Salvador Vallejo massacred 150 Pomo and Wappo Indians on Clear Lake, California. [97]
1846 March Sacramento River Captain Frémont's men attacked a peaceful band of Indians (probably Yanas) on the Sacramento River in California, killing between 120 and 200 Indians. [98]
1846 December Pauma massacre 11 Californios killed by Indians at Escondido, California led to the Temecula massacre. [99]
1846 December Temecula massacre 33 to 40 Indians killed in revenge for the Pauma Massacre at Escondido, California. [99]
1847 February 3–4 Storming of Pueblo de Taos In response to a New Mexican-instigated uprising in Taos, American troops attacked the heavily fortified Pueblo of Taos with artillery, killing nearly 150, some being Indians. Between 25 and 30 prisoners were shot by firing squads. [100]
1847 November 29 Whitman massacre Cayuse and Umatilla killed the missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and twelve others at Walla Walla, Washington, triggering the Cayuse War. [101]
1848 April Brazos River A hunting party of 26 friendly Wichita and Caddo Indians was massacred by Texas Rangers under Captain Samuel Highsmithe, in a valley south of Brazos River. 25 men and boys were killed, only one child managed to escape. [102]
1850 May 15 Bloody Island Massacre Nathaniel Lyon and his U. S. Army detachment of cavalry killed 60–100 Pomo people on Bo-no-po-ti island near Clear Lake, (Lake Co., California); they believed the Pomo had killed two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people. (The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo). This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California. Site is California Registered Historical Landmark #427 [103][104][105]
1851 Old Shasta Town Miners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta, California and burned down their tribal council meeting house. [106]
1852 Hynes Bay Massacre Texas militiamen attacked a village of 50 Karankawas, killing 45 of them. [107]
1852 April 23 Bridge Gulch Massacre 70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H. Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California, in retaliation for the killing of Col. John Anderson. [108]
1852 November Wright Massacre White settlers led by a notorious Indian hunter named Ben Wright massacred 41 Modocs during a "peace parley". [109]
1853 Howonquet Massacre Californian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet, massacring 70 people. [110]
1853 Yontoket Massacre A posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket, California, killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer ceremony. [111][112]
1853 Achulet Massacre White settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California, killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn. [113]
1853 Before December 31 "Ox" incident U.S. forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area (Tulare County, California) in what was referred to by officers as "our little difficulty" and "the chastisement they have received". [114]
1854 January 28 Nasomah Massacre 40 white settlers attacked the sleeping village of the Nasomah Indians at the mouth of the Coquille River in Oregon, killing 15 men and 1 woman. [115]
1854 February 15 Chetco River Massacre Nine white settlers attacked a friendly Indian village on the Chetco River in Oregon, massacring 26 men and a few women. Most of the Indians were shot while trying to escape. Two Chetco who tried to resist with bows and arrows were burned alive in their houses. Shortly before the attack, the Chetco had been induced to give away their weapons as "friendly relations were firmly established". [116]
1854 August 19 Grattan Massacre After a detachment of 30 U.S. soldiers in the Nebraska Territory opened fire on an encampment of 4,000 Brulé Sioux, killing Chief Conquering Bear, warriors attacked and killed all the soldiers and their civilian interpreter. [117]
1854 August 20 Ward Massacre Shoshone killed 18 of the 20 members of the Alexander Ward party, attacking them on the Oregon Trail in western Idaho. This event led the U.S. eventually to abandon Fort Boise and Fort Hall, in favor of the use of military escorts for emigrant wagon trains. [118][119][120]
1855 January 22 Klamath River massacres In retaliation for the murder of six settlers and the theft of some cattle, whites commenced a "war of extermination against the Indians" in Humboldt County, California. [121]
1855 September 2 Harney Massacre US troops under Brigadier General William S. Harney killed 86 Sioux, men, women and children at Blue Water Creek, in present-day Nebraska. About 70 women and children were taken prisoner. [122]
1855 October 8 Lupton Massacre A group of settlers and miners launched a night attack on an Indian village near Upper Table Rock, Oregon, killing 23 Indians (mostly elderly men, women and children). [123]
1855 December 23 Little Butte Creek Oregon volunteers launched a dawn attack on a Tututni and Takelma camp on the Rogue River. Between 19 to 26 Indians were slaughtered. [124]
1856 June Grande Ronde River Valley Massacre Washington Territorial Volunteers under Colonel Benjamin Shaw attacked a peaceful Cayuse and Walla Walla Indians on the Grande Ronde River in Oregon. 60 Indians, mostly women, old men and children were killed. [125]
1856 March Shingletown In reprisal for Indian stock theft, white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men, women and children near Shingletown, California. [126]
1857 Mar 8–12 Spirit Lake Massacre Thirty-five to 40 killed and 4 taken captive by Santee Sioux in the last Native American attack on settlers in Iowa. [127]
1858-1859 Round Valley Massacres White settlers slaughtered 150 Yuki Indians in Round Valley, California. Massacres continued through the spring and summer of 1859. In April 1859, in revenge for the killing of 3 cows and 1 stallion belonging to a white man, California militiamen massacred 240 Indians on the Eel River. On 1 May, Major Johnson reported that six hundred Yukis had been massacred by white settlers "in the last year". [128][129]
1859 September Pit River White settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians (10 men and 60 women and children) in their village on Pit River in California. [130]
1859 Chico Creek White settlers attacked a Maidu camp near Chico Creek in California, killing indiscriminately 40 Indians. [131]
1860 Exact date unknown Massacre at Bloody Rock A group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Bloody Rock, in Mendocino County, California. [132]
1860 February 26 Indian Island Massacre In three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot, at Indian Island, Eureka, Rio Dell, and near Hydesville, California white settlers killed between 200 and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County, California. Victims were mostly women, children and elders, as reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper. Other villages massacred within two days. The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States #66000208. [133][134][135][136]
1860 December 18 Pease River Massacre Texas Rangers under Captain Sul Ross attacked a Comanche village in Foard County, Texas, killing indiscriminately a considerable number of Indians. [137]
1860 September 8 Otter Massacre Near Sinker Creek Idaho, 11 persons of the last wagon train of the year were killed and several others were subsequently killed. Some that escaped the initial massacre starved to death [138]
1861 Horse Canyon Massacre White settlers and Indian allies attacked a Wailaki village in Horse Canyon (Round Valley, California), killing up to 240 Wailakis. [139]
1861 Cookes Canyon Massacres Apaches massacred hundreds of Americans and Mexicans in and around Cookes Canyon, New Mexico over the course of several months. [140]
1861 Sep 2 Gallinas Massacre Four Confederate soldiers killed by Chiricahua Apache warriors. [141]
1862 Upper Station Massacre California settlers killed at least 20 Wailakis in Round Valley, California. [142]
1862 Big Antelope Creek Massacre California settlers led by notorious Indian hunter Hi Good launched a dawn attack on a Yana village, massacring about 25 Indians. [143]
1862 August–September Dakota War of 1862 As part of the U.S.-Dakota War, the Sioux killed as many as 800 white settlers and soldiers throughout Minnesota. Some 40,000 white settlers fled their homes on the frontier.[144] [145]
1862 October 24 Tonkawa Massacre During the U.S. Civil War, a detachment of irregular Union Indians, mainly Kickapoo, Delaware and Shawnee, accompanied by Caddo allies, attempted to destroy the Tonkawa tribe in Indian Territory. They killed 240 of 390 Tonkawa, leaving only 150 survivors. [146]
1863 January 29 Bear River Massacre Col. Patrick Connor led a United States Army regiment killing 280 Shoshone men, women and children near Preston, Idaho. [147][148]
1863 April 19 Keyesville Massacre American militia and members of the California cavalry killed 35 Tehachapi men in Kern County, California. [149]
1863-1865 Mowry massacres 16 settlers killed in a series of Indian raids at Mowry, Arizona Territory [150]
1864 Cottonwood 20 Yanas of both sexes killed by white settlers in the town of Cottonwood, California. [151]
1864 Massacre at Bloody Tanks A group of white settlers led by King S. Woolsey killed 19 Apaches at a "peace parley". [152][153]
1864 Oak Run Massacre California settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered near the head of Oak Run, California for spiritual ceremony. [151]
1864 Skull Valley Massacre A group of Yavapai families was lured into a trap and massacred by soldiers under Lt. Monteith in a valley west of Prescott, Arizona (Arizona). The place was named Skull Valley after the heads of the dead Indians left unburied. [154][155]
1864 November 29 Sand Creek Massacre Members of the Colorado Militia attacked a peaceful village of Cheyenne, killing at least 160 men, women and children at Sand Creek in Kiowa County. [156][157]
1865 March 14 Mud Lake Massacre US troops under Captain Wells attacked a Paiute camp near Winnemucca Lake, killing 32 Indians. One soldier was slightly wounded during the attack. [158]
1865 Owens Lake Massacre White vigilantes attacked a Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California, killing about 40 men, women and children. [159]
1865 Three Knolls Massacre White settlers massacred a Yana community at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek, California. [160][161]
1866 April 21 Circleville Massacre Mormon militiamen killed 16 Paiute men and women at Circleville, Utah. 6 men were shot, allegedly while trying to escape. The others (3 men and 7 women) had their throats cut. 4 small children were spared. [162]
1867 Aquarius Mountains Yavapai County Rangers killed 23 Indians (men, women and children) in the southern Aquarius Mountains, Arizona. [163]
1867 July 2 Kidder Massacre Cheyenne and Sioux ambushed and killed a 2nd US Cavalry detachment of eleven men and their Indian guide near Beaver Creek in Sherman County, Kansas. General Custer was an after-the-fact witness at the scene. [164][165][166]
1868 Campo Seco A posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek, California. [167][168]
1868 November 27 Washita Massacre
(Battle of Washita River)		 During the American Indian Wars, Lt. Col. G.A.Custer's 7th U.S. Cavalry attacked a village of sleeping Cheyenne led by Black Kettle. Custer reported 103 – later revised to 140 – warriors, "some" women and "few" children killed, and 53 women and children taken hostage. Other casualty estimates by cavalry members, scouts and Indians vary widely, with the number of men killed ranging as low as 11 and the numbers of women and children ranging as high as 75. Before returning to their base, the cavalry killed several hundred Indian ponies and burned the village. [169][170][171][172][173][174][175][176][177][178][179]
1870 January 23 Marias Massacre US troops killed 173 Piegan, mainly women, children and the elderly after being led to the wrong camp by a soldier who wanted to protect his Indian wife's family. [180]
1871 Kingsley Cave Massacre 4 settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County, California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness. It is estimated that this massacre left only 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive [181]
1871 April 30 Camp Grant Massacre Led by the ex-Mayor of Tucson, William Oury, eight Americans, 48 Mexicans and more than 100 allied Pima attacked Apache men, women and children at Camp Grant, Arizona Territory killing 144, with 1 survivor at scene and 29 children sold to slavery. All but eight of the dead were Apache women or children. [182][183]
1871 November 5 Wickenburg massacre Indians attacked an Arizona stagecoach, killing the driver and his five passengers, leaving two wounded survivors. [184][185]
1872 Between August and October Jordan Massacre 3 settlers killed, 1 woman abducted, apparently by Indians at Middle Fork of Walnut Creek, Kansas [186][187]
1872 December 28 Skeleton Cave Massacre U.S. troops and Indian scouts killed 76 Yavapai Indians men, women and children in a remote cave in Arizona's Salt River Canyon. [188]
1873 June 1 Cypress Hills Massacre Following a dispute over stolen horses, American wolfers killed approximately 20 Nakoda in Saskatchewan. [189]
1875 April Sappa Creek Massacre Soldiers under Lt Austin Henly trapped a group of 27 Cheyenne, (19 men, 8 women and children) on the Sappa Creek, in Kansas and killed them all. [190]
1877 August 8 Big Hole Massacre US troops under Colonel John Gibbon attacked a Nez Perce village at Big Hole, in Montana Territory. They killed 89 men, women and children before being repulsed by the Indians. [124]
1879 January 9–21 Fort Robinson Massacre Northern Cheyenne under Dull Knife attempted to escape from confinement in Fort Robinson, Nebraska; U.S. Army forces hunted them down, killing 77 of them. The remains of those killed were repatriated in 1994. [191][192]
1879 September 30 Meeker Massacre In the beginning of the Ute War, the Ute killed the US Indian Agent Nathan Meeker and 10 others. They also attacked a military unit, killing 13 and wounding 43. [193][194]
1880 April 28 Alma Massacre The Apache chief Victorio led warriors in an attack on settlers at Alma, New Mexico. On December 19, 1885, the Apache killed an officer and four enlisted men of the 8th Cavalry Regiment near Alma. [195]
1889 November 2 Kelvin Grade Massacre The Apache Kid (Haskay-bay-nay-ntayl) and his gang escaped police custody, killing two sheriffs and wounding one settler near present-day Globe, Arizona. [196]
1890 December 10 Buffalo Gap Massacre Several wagonloads of Sioux were killed by South Dakota Home Guard militiamen near French Creek, South Dakota, while visiting a white friend in Buffalo Gap. [197]
1890 December Stronghold South Dakota Home Guard militiamen ambushed and massacred 75 Sioux at the Stronghold, in the northern portion of Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. [197]
1890 December 29 Wounded Knee Massacre Members of the U.S. 7th Cavalry attacked and killed between 130 and 250 Sioux men, women and children at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. [198][199]
1911 January 19 Last Massacre A group of Shoshone killed four ranchers in Washoe County, Nevada. On 26 February 1911, an American posse killed eight of the Shoshone suspects and captured four children from the band. [200][201][202]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Osborn, William M. (2001). The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During The American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee. Garden City, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50374-0.
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  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  4. ↑ Clayton, Lawrence A., "Hernando de Soto: A Brief".
  5. ↑ Wilford, John Noble, "De Soto's Trail: Courage and Cruelty Come Alive", New York Times, 19 May 1987
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Steele, Ian Kenneth, Warpaths: Invasions of North America, Oxford University Press, 1994. pp. 15, 47, 116.
  7. ↑ Sauer, C., Sixteenth Century North America; the land and the people as seen by the Europeans, University of California Press, 1971, p. 141.
  8. ↑ Flint, R., No settlement, no conquest : a history of the Coronado Entrada, University of New Mexico Press, 2008, pp. 144–153.
  9. ↑ "Conquistador Statue Stirs Hispanic Pride and Indian Rage"
  10. ↑ Weber, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992, pp. 85–86.
  11. ↑ Riley, Carroll, L., Rio del Norte: People of the Upper Rio Grande from Earliest Times to the Pueblo Revolt, University of Utah Press, 2007, p. 252, ISBN 978-0-87480-496-6
  12. ↑ Jamestown: Legacy of the Massacre of 1622 | Americans at War: 1500–1815 Summary
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Cave, Alfred A., The Pequot War, University of Massachusetts Press, 1996, pp. 144–154.
  15. ↑ Wm Kieft and Pavonia
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  18. ↑ Churchill 1997, p. 198
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  20. ↑ Trelease, A., Indian Affairs in Colonial New York; The Seventeenth Century, pp. 79–80.
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  24. ↑ Ellis, George W., Morris, John E., King Philip's War, Grafton Historical Series, The Grafton Press, 1906, pp. 152–155
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  26. ↑ Franko, Victor, Nine Men's Misery Part 2 Historical Research, 2003, Joseph Bucklin Society, accessdate 17 February 2013
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  28. ↑ Kiernan 2007, p. 239
  29. ↑ Resistance and Accommodation in New Mexico
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  31. ↑ Preucel, Robert W., Archaeologies of the Pueblo revolt: identity, meaning, and renewal in the Pueblo world, University of New Mexico Press, 2007, p. 56, ISBN 978-0-8263-2247-0
  32. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 33
  33. ↑ Banks, Charles Edward, History of York, Maine, successively known as Bristol (1632), Agamentious (1641), Gorgeana (1642), and York (1652). With contributions on topography and land titles by Angevine W. Gowen. Sketches by the author. Baltimore, Regional Publishing Company, 1967 reprint of first edition: Charles E. Banks, Boston, 1931 Vol. 1
  34. ↑ Gallay 2003, pp. 147–148
  35. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 48
  36. ↑ Ashlee, Laura R. Traveling Through Time: A Guide to Michigan's Historical Markers, University of Michigan Press, 2005, p. 502, ISBN 978-0-47203-066-8
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  38. ↑ Read, Milton, The tar heel state: a history of North Carolina, University of South Carolina Press, 2005, pp. 36–37, ISBN 978-1-57003-591-3
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  40. ↑ Grenier, John The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760, University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, p. 84, ISBN 978-0-80613-876-3
  41. ↑ Barnett, James F., The Natchez Indians: a history to 1735, University Press of Mississippi, 2007, p. 105, ISBN 978-1-57806-988-0
  42. ↑ Edmunds, R. Davids and Peyser, Joseph L. The Fox Wars: Mesquakie Challenge to New France, University of Oklahoma Press, 1993, pp. 151-156, ISBN 978-0-80612-551-0
  43. ↑ Blackhawk, Ned, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West, Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 50, ISBN 978-0-67402-290-4
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  45. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 224
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  47. ↑ Bruchac, Marge, Reading Abenaki Traditions and European Records of Rogers' Raid, August 2006, pp. 3-4
  48. ↑ Nester, "Haughty Conquerors", 86, gives the number of traders killed at Sandusky as 12; Dixon, Never Come to Peace, mentions "three or four", while Dowd, War under Heaven, 125, says that it was "a great many".
  49. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 260
  50. ↑ Taylor, Alan, American Colonies, New York: Viking Press, 2001
  51. ↑ "A Narrative of the Late Massacres...", Benjamin Franklin's account of the massacre and criticism of the Paxton Boys
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "A Disquisition Portraying the History Relative to the Enoch Brown Incident", Greencastle Museum
  53. ↑ Hamalainen 2008, p. 78
  54. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 106
  55. ↑ De Haas, Wills. History of the early settlement and Indian wars of Western Virginia; embracing an account of the various expeditions in the West, previous to 1795. Philadelphia: King & Baird. 1851.
  56. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 181
  57. ↑ Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission | The Battle of Wyoming and Hartley's Expedition
  58. ↑ Wallace, Paul A. W., Indians in Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, 2007, 200 pages, pp. 162-164, ISBN 978-0-89271-017-1
  59. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 246
  60. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 321
  61. ↑ Belcher, Ronald Clay, (2011) Westervelt Massacre in Kentucky in 1780. Blue Grass Roots. Quarterly Journal of the Kentucky Genealogical Society. Frankfurt, Kentucky. Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 30-37.
  62. ↑ Priest, Josiah, Stories of the Revolution with an account of the lost child of the Delaware, 1836, Hoffman and White Albany, New York, accessdate 17 February 2013
  63. ↑ Dietz Massacre
  64. ↑ Wilcox, G.T., An account of the Long Run Massacre and Floyd's Defeat as told by G. T. Wilcox, Squire Boone's Grandson in a letter to Hon. Thos. W. Bullitt. Kentucky Genealogy 28, June 2000, accessdate 28 December 2012.
  65. ↑ Akers, Vincent J. History of Painted Stone Station. Painted Stone Settlers Organization. 2012, accessdate 28 December 2012.
  66. ↑ Tuscarawas
  67. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 57
  68. ↑ Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine, R.R. Bowker Co., 1925, Volume 59, 1925, January–June p. 234
  69. ↑ Fairfax Downed, Indian Wars of the U.S. Army 1776-1865 (1963), pp. 54-59
  70. ↑ Denetdale, Jennifer Nez, Reclaiming Diné History: The Legacies of Navajo Chief Manuelito and Juanita, University of Arizona Press; 2007, p. 56. ISBN 978-0-81652-660-4.
  71. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 231
  72. ↑ Allison, Harold (©1986, Harold Allison). The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians. Turner Publishing Company, Paducah.
  73. ↑ Howe, Henry., Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 1, pp. 257–258, 1907
  74. ↑ Howe, Henry., Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 1, pp. 258–259, 1907
  75. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 20
  76. ↑ Sutton, R., The History of Shelby County Ohio, 1883, p. 122
  77. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 245
  78. ↑ Heidler D.S., Heidler J.T., Encyclopedia of the War of 1812, Naval Institute Press, 2004, p. 239, ISBN 978-0-87436-968-7
  79. ↑ McKenney, T.L., Indian Tribes of America, Applewood Books, 2010, p. 307, ISBN 978-1-4290-2265-1
  80. ↑ Andrew Jackson Learns of the Chehaw Affair (subscription required), The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History
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  82. ↑ Himmel 1999, p. 50
  83. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 128
  84. ↑ Armstrong, Perry A. The Sauks and the Black Hawk War, in H.W. Rokker, 1887, pp. 415-416, accessdate 27 December 2012
  85. ↑ Lewis, James, The Black Hawk War of 1832, Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
  86. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 213
  87. ↑ May, Jon D., "Battle of Cutthroat Gap" Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, retrieved 24 May 2012.
  88. ↑ Axelrod, Alan, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, p. 146
  89. ↑ Meltzer, Milton. 2004. Hunted Like A Wolf. Pineapple Press. p.89
  90. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 127
  91. ↑ Sweeney, Edwin R. Cochise: Chiricahua Apache Chief, University of Oklahoma Press, 1995, p. 33, ISBN 978-0806126067
  92. ↑ Dean, Kenneth Remembering The Killough Massacre, 21 June 2010, East Texas News, Tyler Paper, accessed February 16, 2013.
  93. ↑ Abbott, Peyton O., Webster massacre, Texas State Historical Association, Handbook of Texas Online, accessed 16 February 2013.
  94. ↑ Anderson 2005, pp. 182-183
  95. ↑ Knetsch, Joe., Florida's Seminole Wars 1817–1858, Arcadia Publishing (18 September 2012), p. 128
  96. ↑ Anderson 2005, pp. 190-191
  97. ↑ Perez, Vincent, Remembering the Hacienda: History and Memory in the Mexican American Southwest, Texas A&M University Press, 2006, p. 85, ISBN 978-1-58544-511-0
  98. ↑ Kiernan 2007, p. 352
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 Parker, Horace, The Historic Valley of Temecula. The Temecula Massacre 24 pages, Paisano Press (1971), 286593
  100. ↑ Mcwilliams, Carey, North From Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States, Praeger, 1990, p. 115, ISBN 978-0275932244
  101. ↑ Konstantin 2002, p. 336
  102. ↑ Anderson 2005, pp. 226-227
  103. ↑ Letter, Brevet Capt. N. Lyon to Major E.R.S. Canby, 22 May 1850
  104. ↑ Heizer 1993, pp. 244–246
  105. ↑ Key, Karen. Bloody Island (Bo-no-po-ti) The Historical Marker Database. 18 June 2007, accessdate 26 December 2012
  106. ↑ Heizer, Robert, Handbook of North American Indians: California, Volume 8, William Sturtevant, General Editor, Smithsonian Institution, 1978, pp. 324–325
  107. ↑ Himmel 1999, p. 101
  108. ↑ Norton 1979, pp. 51–54
  109. ↑ Thrapp,Dan L, Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 3: P-Z, University of Nebraska Press, 1991, p. 1276, ISBN 978-0803294202
  110. ↑ Collins, James, Understanding Tolowa Histories: Western Hegemonies and Native American Responses, Routledge, 1997, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-41591-2082
  111. ↑ Thornton 1990, p. 206
  112. ↑ Norton 1979
  113. ↑ Norton 1979, pp. 56–57
  114. ↑ Heizer 1993, Letter, Bvt. 2nd Lieut. John Nugens to Lieut T. Wright, December 31, 1853, pp. 12–13,.
  115. ↑ Schwartz 1997, pp. 61-62
  116. ↑ Schwartz 1997, p. 63
  117. ↑ Michno 2003, p. 27
  118. ↑ Oregon Trail in Idaho—Ward Massacre Site idahohistory.net
  119. ↑ Ward Massacre washingtonwars.net
  120. ↑ Michno 2003, pp. 28–29
  121. ↑ Heizer 1993, Crescent City Herald, quoted in Sacramento newspaper., pp. 35–36
  122. ↑ Sprague, Donovin A. Rosebud Sioux (Images of America: South Dakota), Arcadia Publishing, 2005, p. 21. 978-0738534473
  123. ↑ Schwartz 1997, pp. 86-88
  124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 Madley 2012, p. 121
  125. ↑ Massacre on the Grande Ronde River in Oregon, sos.wa.gov
  126. ↑ Madley 2012b, pp. 21-22
  127. ↑ Gardner-Sharp, Abbie History of the Spirit Lake Massacre and Captivity of Miss Abbie Gardner, Des Moines: Iowa Printing, 1885 (reprinted 1892, 1910), accessdate 28 December 2012
  128. ↑ Madley, Benjamin California’s Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History in Western Historical Quarterly 39 (Autumn 2008): 303-332, pp. 317-318
  129. ↑ Lindsay, Brendan C., Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846-1873,University of Nebraska Press, 2012, p.192-193, ISBN 978-0803224803
  130. ↑ Madley 2012, pp. 118-119
  131. ↑ Madley 2012, p. 117
  132. ↑ Yuki Indians Killed at Bloody Rock
  133. ↑ Heizer 1993
  134. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  135. ↑ "In 1860 six murderers nearly wiped out the Wiyot Indian tribe—in 2004 its members have found ways to heal", SFGate.com
  136. ↑ Michno 2003, pp. 72–73
  137. ↑ Anderson 2005, pp. 331-332
  138. ↑ Owyhee County Cattlemen, pages 172 - 180
  139. ↑ Baumgardner 2006, pp. 204–206
  140. ↑ Thrapp, Dan L. (1979). The Conquest of Apacheria. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1286-7.
  141. ↑ Thompson, Jerry Don, Colonel John Robert Baylor: Texas Indian Fighter and Confederate Soldier. Hillsboro, Texas: Hill Junior College Press, 1971.
  142. ↑ Baumgardner 2006, p. 243
  143. ↑ Madley 2012b, p. 34
  144. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  145. ↑ University of Cincinnati News: Tolzmann Edits Pioneer Accounts of Sioux
  146. ↑ Michno 2003, pp. 105–106
  147. ↑ Kiernan 2007, p. 356
  148. ↑ Hart, Newell, The Bear River Massacre. Cache Valley Newsletter Publishing Company, Preston, Idaho. 1982. ISBN 0-941462-01-3
  149. ↑ Keyesville Indian Massacre of April 19, 1863
  150. ↑ Browne, R. John, Adventures in the Apache County: a tour through Arizona and Sonora with notes on the silver regions of Nevada. 1869. New York: Harpers & Brothers Publishers.
  151. ↑ 151.0 151.1 Madley 2012b, p. 40
  152. ↑ McGinnis, Ralph and Smith, Calvin, Abraham Lincoln and the western territories, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1994, p. 90, ISBN 978-0-8304-1247-1
  153. ↑ Thrapp 1975, pp. 29–31
  154. ↑ Braatz 2003, pp. 89-90, p. 105
  155. ↑ Newton C.H., The reasons why place names in Arizona are so named, Tecolote Press, 1978, p. 40, ISBN 978-0-915030-25-5
  156. ↑ Michno 2003, pp. 157–159
  157. ↑ Smiley, Brenda "Sand Creek Massacre", Archeology magazine. Archaeological Institute of America, accessdate 26 December 2012.
  158. ↑ Egan, Ferol Sand in a whirlwind, 30th Anniversary Edition: The Paiute Indian War of 1860, University of Nevada Press, 1985, p. 226. ISBN 978-0-87417-097-9
  159. ↑ Fradkin, Philip L., The seven states of California: a natural and human history, University of California Press, 1997, p. 31, ISBN 978-0-520-20942-8
  160. ↑ Thornton 1990, p. 110
  161. ↑ Scheper-Hughes 2003, p. 55
  162. ↑ Knack, Martha, Boundaries Between: The Southern Paiutes, 1775–1995, University of Nebraska Press, 2004, p. 85, ISBN 0-8032-7818-7
  163. ↑ Thrapp 1975, pp. 37–38
  164. ↑ Michno 2003, pp. 201–202
  165. ↑ Cooper, Marilyn, Kidder Massacre, Sherman County Historical Society, retrieved 16 February 2013.
  166. ↑ "Kidder Massacre", photo of historic marker, Garry Owen Website, accessdate 28 December 2012.
  167. ↑ Thornton 1990, p. 111
  168. ↑ ScheperHughe 2003, p. 56
  169. ↑ ABC-CLIO Schools | Washita Massacre
  170. ↑ Andrist, Ralph K., The Long Death: The Last Days of the Plains Indians, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, 371 pages, pp 157-162, ISBN 978-0-8061-3308-9
  171. ↑ Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Henry Holt and Co., 2007, 487 pages, pp 167-169, ISBN 978-0-8050-8684-3
  172. ↑ Churchill 1997, p. 236
  173. ↑ Colorado Humanities | Sand Creek Memorial and Washita Sites
  174. ↑ "Washita Battlefield, Oklahoma", ExploreSouthernHistory.com
  175. ↑ Giago, Tim, "Honoring Those Who Died at Washita"
  176. ↑ Native American Netroots | The 140th Anniversary of the Washita Massacre of Nov. 27, 1868
  177. ↑ "Washita", The West, PBS
  178. ↑ "Cherry Creek Massacre recognized in magazine", The Saint Francis Herald (St. Francis, KS), 17 November 2005
  179. ↑ Zeman, Scott C., Chronology of the American West from 23,000 B.C.E. through the Twentieth Century, ABC-CLIO, 2002, 381 pages, p. 155, ISBN 978-1-57607-207-3
  180. ↑ Michno 2003, p. 241
  181. ↑ Ishi in Two Worlds California State Parks Video Transcript
  182. ↑ Terrell, J., Land Grab, pp. 4–10.
  183. ↑ Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Chip, Western Apache Oral Histories and Traditions of the Camp Grant Massacre. The American Indian Quarterly - Volume 27, Number 3&4, Summer/Fall 2003, pp. 639-666., accessdate 26 December 2012
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  186. ↑ Congressional Record. February 3, 1873.
  187. ↑ Fazzini, P., "Mrs Jordan captured by Indians 1872 Kansas", GenForum, genealogy.com. 11 February 2012.
  188. ↑ Braatz 2003, pp. 2–3; p. 138
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  190. ↑ Churchill 1997, p. 237
  191. ↑ Michno 2003, pp. 322–323
  192. ↑ Boye, Alan, Holding Stone Hands: On the Trail of the Cheyenne Exodus, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pp. 66–67, ISBN 978-0-8032-1294-7
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  194. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  195. ↑ "The Alma Massacre, Alma, New Mexico" from the WPA Writers Project, archived 7 October 2008 by Internet Archive
  196. ↑ Hayes, Jess G. Apache Vengeance: The true story of Apache Kid. (1954). University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque, New Mexico, OCLC 834291
  197. ↑ 197.0 197.1 Gonzalez 1998, p. 294
  198. ↑ Michno 2003, p. 351
  199. ↑ Jensen, Richard, Paul, Eli and Hanson, James, Eyewitness at Wounded Knee, University of Nebraska Press, 1991, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-8032-1409-5
  200. ↑ Early Native Americans nevada-history.org
  201. ↑ Book Review, The Last Massacre, New York Times, 17 January 1988
  202. ↑ "Policeman Edward Hogle, Nevada State Police" The Officer Down Memorial Page

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